BUS599 - Integrative Project, Mod 5 SLP Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

BUS599 - Integrative Project, Mod 5 SLP - Essay Example The pricing for the other products X6 and X7 have to undergo strategic analysis and appropriate changes in order to retain and improve the company based on the remaining two products. The New Year celebration comes at the beginning of the year 2016, but we realize that the celebration experience was not valuable because the year 2015 did not end with better performance. This calls for an analysis of the performance of the last two years so as to determine the major causes of low performance and make better decisions for the future. As we compare the results for the last two Time Warps, we allocate appropriate decisions that will improve the performance for 2016. We then take the results through the analysis of Cost, Volume and Profit to determine the differences in results obtained. Simulation We begin simulation by analyzing each product separately. Based on the decision to discontinue product X5 in the year 2015, we will first have an analysis of the products X6 and X7, then a sepa rate analysis for product X5 in order to know whether to remain as discontinues or return to the market. We will have the simulation results as follows: Product X6 The X6 has existed for the last 5 years, and was discontinued for 2016 as a result of having attained market saturation point. ... Its pricing depends on parameters for high performance and cost effectiveness. It has not reached its saturation point in the market hence it is not discontinued. It proceeds to the year 2016. Year 2014 2015 2016 Price 275 250 246 Results and Decisions The simulations indicate that product X5 and X6 do not make it to the year 2016. Both of them reach saturation points and they no longer attract customers. Product X7 continues in the market in 2016 and the first time customers continue to increase. The results can be interpreted to mean that as long as there is a product whose customers depend on a single attribute, it will certainly attain a saturation point of the price and looses the power to retain customers. At the same time it fails to attract new customers as in the case of product X5 and X6. It leads the management of Clipboard Tablet Company to consider producing more of product X7 than the others. Difference in Results using CVP Analysis (Cost, Volume and Profit) The analysi s of cost, volume and profits enables a company to develop and focus on the approaches that will introduced in connection to the product pricing (Williams & Williams, 2010). It also focuses on the needs of research programs that can improve the productivity and customer satisfaction index of a company. Clipboard Tablet Company can now formulate and implement the strategies that on the basis of Cost, Volume and Profit analysis (CVP). CVP analysis will enable Clipboard Tablet Company to determine the best strategy to use in connection to the pricing of the three products. It also determines when a particular product should be discontinued depending on the contemporary ranges of tablets prices in the market (Drury, 2007). A CVP analysis is an

The Impact Of Automobile On Air Pollution Environmental Sciences Essay

The Impact Of Automobile On Air Pollution Environmental Sciences Essay Air pollution caused by cars is one of the biggest challenges for air pollution that environmentalist are working with now a days. In the 1920s the first car was invented with a combustible engine. Henry Ford was the creator and also later founded Ford Motor Company. The invention of the car was known to be one of the biggest inventions in the 1920s it made transportation a lot better and also added to the economy to give it the boost it needed. The Ford Motor Company came out with Americas first affordable car, called the Model T. (anglefire) To this date there is no exact number of how many cars have been made or sold in the USA from when they had first been invented. A lot of the reasoning behind why there is no perfect number is mainly because not all of them are registered. On the roads today there are around 250 million register vehicles on the roadways. The U.S. Department of Transportation says that 2008 there were 136 million cars, 110 million trucks and close to 1 million buses totaling up to 247 million cars trucks and buses that are on the roads and registered. These statistics do not include cars that are unregistered and sit in junkyards. The U.S. D.O.T states the roughly 16 million new cars are bought yearly. (Wikianswer) Yes, automobiles do make life a lot easier to transport our selfs and objects but they do have an effect on us. Through many scientific test research has shown that it pays a big toll on the environment. These tests have provided us with answers to show the emissions from a car that are put into the atmosphere can be directly connected to human health issues. The exhaust on a vehicle is what produces these emissions. Once they leave the exhaust and enter the air they can be breathed in and enter the blood stream and into the bodys major organs. Diesel fueled vehicles seem to be more of a problem to us and the environment but they but they can have major effects on the body. Some of these harmful fumes that are put out into the atmosphere by a vehicle are carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, benzene, formaldehyde, polycyclic hydrocarbons, and lead. Although studies have clearly connected emissions to a wide span of health problems in the United States, the risk to each individual is very difficult to grasp as it varies. There is no doubt in anyones mind that the mores you are exposed to these toxic fumes that u will be put into a greater risk. (BBC) People who already expierance respiratory problems are at a much greater risk then people who dont suffer from asthma for an example. The biggest and most obvious of where the emissions will take their toll on a human would be there respiratory system. In the UK air pollution cause by vehicles is said to be responsible for 24,000 early deaths every year. Many of these premature deaths have to deal with asthma, bronchitis and many other that can be brought upon someone by vehicle emissions. (BBC) Fumes from an exhaust on a car put out many toxic chemicals that affect the blood and coronary system. Studies show that about one in every 50 heart attacks are caused or triggered by air pollution. (BBC) All the chemicals found in exhaust fumes like lead, benzene, and carbon monoxide can all be connected in a harmful way to a persons blood. When more lead enters the bloodstream it can change around the formation of the red blood cells in your body. It is directly connected to damaging the red blood cells membranes and the metabolism of that cell which may cause it to have a shorter life and can happen to all the red blood cells as well. This can eventually lead to lead anemia. Anemia this when your body has a shortage of cells and this reduces the bodys ability to circulate oxygen through the body. (BBC) Benzene is a chemical that is also found In the emissions put out through the exhaust can have a major effect on bone marrow also damages the way in which the body can produce more red blood cells and their development. When humans get exposed to this chemical it results in a decreasing number of blood cells known as cytopenia. If a human comes in an excessive amount of contact with this chemical it can result in complete bone marrow loss. Which leads to many other health issues that can also lead to death. Carbon monoxide poisoning is a very big issue that most of us have heard of, and we all even protect ourselves from this deadly, highly poisonous, odorless gas. Yet most of us most likely do not realize that your very own family vehicle helps contribute to the two-thirds of the worlds carbon monoxide gases that enter our world atmosphere. Carbon monoxide poisoning is very to suffocation. Carbon monoxide binds to the hemoglobin contained in the red blood cells 200 times more effect ively then oxygen, and so can dramatically reduce the ability of the cells to transport and release oxygen to the tissues of the body. (www.bbc.co.uk) This can cause many problems with main organs and within minutes of being surrounded by the fumes you can die. (BBC) When a human comes in contact with these toxic chemicals it stimulates the bodys immune system to attack its own tissues mainly the cells that line our blood vessels. At one short time period the damage can be small but over time the more exposure that a person get it can build up, this can lead to blocking of the vessels and leads to high blood pressure or even heart disease. (BBC) Recent studies have shown that the more that a human is exposed to emissions can lead to behavioral changes, also impairs mental function. This can be detrimental to a persons learning or memory. In our body the immune system is also a very vulnerable place. Benzene and nitrogen dioxide and matter from an exhaust works against the immune system. This leads to either an over active immune system which cannot tell a difference between foreign invaders and it self and as a result it can attack itself. Emissions from an auto mobile can cause people to form greater risk of getting cancer. If in contact or exposed to the chemical of benzene for good amount of time the long term is known to create leukemia. This brings upon a big problem for people who have weak immune systems. Polycyclic hydrocarbons are also thought to be carcinogenic. Several of these compounds have caused tumors in laboratory animals when they ate them, when they were applied to their skin, or when they breathed them in the air for a long period of time. Studies in animals have also shown that the polycyclic hydrocarbons can cause harmful effects on the skin and on body fluids and its thought that they are responsible for lung cancer in gas.(BBC) Emissions from a vehicle dont just have an impact on our health but have one on environmental health such as plants and animals too. Emissions contribute to two very big problems in the world to, acid rain and global warming. Acid rain is rain that has contaminated with sulfur and nitrogen oxides. Acid rain is formed when pollutions called nitrogen and sulfur oxides contained in plant smoke, factory smoke and exhaust fumes. (Anglefire) Acid rain causes many problems and can cause buildings, bridges and statues to fall apart because the high acidic levels make them fall apart quicker than normal ageing. Acid rain cause more problems by raising the pH level in any bodies of water. This can cause harm to any animal that lives off or water or fish in the water. When acid rain builds up and gets to a high acidic level it can really cause harm to soil. This is another bad consequence because the trees life of the soil and it can permanently damage their roots. When their roots are damaged it affects the whole tree, not being able to get enough nutrients to any part of the tree that needs it. This causes wildlife surrounded about the tree to not get what they might not need, it can also cause the tree and other plants not be able to properly complete their photosynthesis. Smog is yet another problem that is caused by acid rain which is harmful to us to breathe in. If the water s acidic enough it can have a reaction to cer tain types of metals that maybe the water might run through pipes to get to us the people. (Angelfire) Emissions from vehicles also contribute heavily to global warming because of its high carbon dioxide output on a combustible engine. Carbon dioxide is a thick gas that traps, when it is released to the earths atmosphere it acts as a big solar shield and it keeps the heat trapped in. The emissions from a vehicle make up about one third of the worlds carbon dioxide in the earths atmosphere. (Withgott 2012) Ways to control and maybe even in the future do away with engine emissions, there are many out there and some are already being worked into todays society. Many vehicles that run off of ethanol have been looked into as an alternative to gasoline. But even though ethanol is better than gasoline it still contributes to the emissions that are building up in the worlds atmosphere. There are also new options such as the flex fuel cars and trucks that can use up to 100% ethanol which is a lot better than gasoline but still isnt where environmentalist would like it to be. Ever since these flex fuel cars have been produced, the production keeps going up. However People do not realize that flex fuel is limited in supply. (Nutramed) Another alternative are electric cars. These cars are out on the road being tested and improved every day. On these cars there are many limitations one of them is that batteries to run a car can wear out very quickly due to the amount of recharges that are needed and the materials for the batteries are expensive and are also running low. Also with electric cars if you are charging them with some outlet that is connected to the main factory, and that factory builds their electricity by using fossil fuel then there are little to no benefits because the factories generate a lot of the pollution as well. (Nutramed) There is also another alternative to gasoline powered vehicles this one is most likely the best one yet. Hydrogen fueled cars are the best when it comes to emissions because they are promised to put out close to zero emissions. The only thing that is put out by this vehicle is water vapor. The fossil fueled vehicles today emit all types of harmful chemicals. Hybrid vehicles take a shot at it but they still do not take away all the emissions, the only one out there that will promise to keep the air clean and emit zero pollution would be the hydrogen fueled automobile. These types of cars will be available in the future but will be very expensive and will only have few designated fill stations. People will most likely not start seeing these cars regularly till the distant future. (Nutramed) Cities and towns could help the cause by improving their public transportation to hybrids to start and advise their people about what their cars are actually doing. If people had to go a short distance and would ride their bikes or even walk it would already start to help out the environment. (Nutramed) The clean air act was passed by congress in 1970 and amended in 1977 and 1990; this act had required the environmental protection agency to set national air quality standards to help the protection against pollutions in the ozone like carbon monoxide. Some states have even made standards that when the car goes for inspection that it is checked to see if it emitting the least amount of pollutants as possible. (EPA) Air pollution is one of the most challenging topics that environmentalist are dealing with mainly from car emission. Due to all the changes that they are working towards and are working hard on all the standards generations after us may never be driving fossil fueled cars in their lifetime. Public transportation will be as big as it used to and see many more people using this type of transportation. As the future comes at us the technology is only getting better and who know what it holds in store for us. At some point the technology will be our answer to environmental problems with vehicles with zero emissions. WORK CITED Withgott, Jay. Environmental Science: Your world your turn. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2011.Print. 2 Plain English guide to the clean air act| air and radiation | US EPA. US Environmental Protection agency. Web.30.March 2011. 3 Acid Rain: welcome to anglefire. Web.30 mar 2011. http://www.anglefire.com/acidrainreport 4 Inventions: Automobile: Anglefire :welcome to angle fire Web. 24 mar. 2011 http://www.anglefire.com 5 Answers.com-how many cars are currently in the US. Wikianswers- The QA wiki. Web. 24.mar.2011 http://www.wikianswers.com 6 BBC -Health : exhaust emissions. BBC- homepage. Web. 24.mar. http://www.bbc.co.uk 7 Car exhaust, Air pollution and the Environment: Health Effects of Exhaust Chemicals. Alpha Online, Clean Air, Nutrition for the 21st Century, Solutions for Medical Problems.web.24 mar. http://www.nutramed.com/environment/cars 8 Immunodeficiency Disorders-PubMed Health. Immunodeficiency Disorders. Web. 30mar. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth

Types of Website Buyers and their Impact on Your Bottom Line :: Sell Websites Buy Websites

Types of Website Buyers and their Impact on Your Bottom Line Reprinted with permission of VotanWeb.com Different types of website buyers have different objectives and levels of experience. Knowing these differences can help you in getting the deal you want. As you begin your discussions with potential buyers, it's important to keep in mind that their goals and objectives can vary greatly. In general, website buyers can be classified into three major categories: strategic companies (both public and private), Private Investment Groups, and individual investors. Each website buyer type presents a unique set of advantages and disadvantages that can have great impact on the ultimate outcome of the sale. Understanding these differences can help you, both in your negotiations and in finding the best buyer to meet your personal goals. Strategic Companies Acquisitions by strategic buyers are generally driven by potential synergies between the acquirer and the target entity. For example, you may have a website that offers a product or service that is highly complementary to their product or service offering. Or, you may have an established website in a certain niche market that the acquirer has had difficulty penetrating. This focus on synergistic value may result in higher offers from this buyer group than from others, since the operational efficiencies that are created can provide immediate higher profitability and a more rapid return on investment for the buyer. Public and private strategic buyers differ in that the liquid market for public company shares may create a more aggressive valuation for public firms over those that are private. This may allow the publicly traded company to pay a premium price for your website, especially if you're willing to accept an all stock transaction. The company structure after the sale may also differ with a sale to a strategic buyer. For instance, unless management is viewed as absolutely critical to maintaining company performance, these buyers generally don't require that the active, selling shareholders remain with the company much past a short transition period (generally six months to a year). Also, depending upon the size of the target and the logistics involved, the buyer will oftentimes completely absorb the target company into its current operations, making the ability to relocate the target company an important consideration. An additional consideration for strategic buyers is the clarity of historical corporate records. Large buyers are particularly sensitive to possible liabilities (licensing issues, outstanding contracts, taxes, etc. Types of Website Buyers and their Impact on Your Bottom Line :: Sell Websites Buy Websites Types of Website Buyers and their Impact on Your Bottom Line Reprinted with permission of VotanWeb.com Different types of website buyers have different objectives and levels of experience. Knowing these differences can help you in getting the deal you want. As you begin your discussions with potential buyers, it's important to keep in mind that their goals and objectives can vary greatly. In general, website buyers can be classified into three major categories: strategic companies (both public and private), Private Investment Groups, and individual investors. Each website buyer type presents a unique set of advantages and disadvantages that can have great impact on the ultimate outcome of the sale. Understanding these differences can help you, both in your negotiations and in finding the best buyer to meet your personal goals. Strategic Companies Acquisitions by strategic buyers are generally driven by potential synergies between the acquirer and the target entity. For example, you may have a website that offers a product or service that is highly complementary to their product or service offering. Or, you may have an established website in a certain niche market that the acquirer has had difficulty penetrating. This focus on synergistic value may result in higher offers from this buyer group than from others, since the operational efficiencies that are created can provide immediate higher profitability and a more rapid return on investment for the buyer. Public and private strategic buyers differ in that the liquid market for public company shares may create a more aggressive valuation for public firms over those that are private. This may allow the publicly traded company to pay a premium price for your website, especially if you're willing to accept an all stock transaction. The company structure after the sale may also differ with a sale to a strategic buyer. For instance, unless management is viewed as absolutely critical to maintaining company performance, these buyers generally don't require that the active, selling shareholders remain with the company much past a short transition period (generally six months to a year). Also, depending upon the size of the target and the logistics involved, the buyer will oftentimes completely absorb the target company into its current operations, making the ability to relocate the target company an important consideration. An additional consideration for strategic buyers is the clarity of historical corporate records. Large buyers are particularly sensitive to possible liabilities (licensing issues, outstanding contracts, taxes, etc.

Over the years there have been many theories of why rape occurs

Over the years there have been many theories of why rape occurs. Although rape can happen to a woman or a man statistics show that rape of a woman by a man is the most common form and this essay will focus on female rape. Rape is a brutal and ugly expression of male violence it is usually directed at women. Although rape is sometimes directed against children and men, this essay will focus on the rape of women by men. The following paragraphs will critically consider the contributions different theorists have made on the subject of Rape. Firstly it will look at how violence is defined and how rape is defined. Sociologists, criminologists and psychologists have different opinions as to why violent crimes such as rape occur. This essay will consider social learning theory explanations, radical feminist explanations, psychological explanations and biological explanations of why some men rape women. Matza, Left Realism, James Short and Taylor, Walton and Young will be some of the theorists used. Firstly rape is defined as having sexual intercourse with a person without their consent. Sex without consent could be because the individual is incapable of consenting due to the fact that they are mentally incapable, are incapable of consenting due to drink or drugs or that they have been forced or coerced into sex because of violence or the threat of violence. Violence does not have to be a physical act or result in physical violence; it can be words, mannerisms and attitudes or even a display of aggression, which leads an individual feeling, threatened and vulnerable. Radical feminist theories would even define coerced sex as rape, this is were they argue that women agree to sex because they feel that there will be negative responses from the other individual if they refuse. Explanations of rape are mainly sociocultural and social interactionist, arguing that ‘Rape reflects more general attitudes by men towards women in any particular society and that a substantial proportion of rape arises from misinterpreted ( to male advantage unless convicted) and unreciprocated seductions' (Sanday, 1981; Sorenson and White, 1992; Scully 1990, cited in Maguire et al Levi M ch24 1997: 866). White and Sorensen 1992 and Felson 1993 point out that whilst the majority of rapists prefer ‘non-coercive strategies to obtain sex, ‘subjectively defined sexual deprivation is their primary motivation' (Cited in Maguire et al 1997 levi m ch 24:866). They further point out that the majority of men who rape women have very full sex lives, and they regard other individuals as merely being there for their sexual gratification. These explanations are social psychological explanations. However individual psychopathology is important in rape cases were the victim and the rapist has had no previous interaction with each other before the rape, (West 1987, cited in macguire et al jefferson ch16;548). In some cultures and societies a women is raped because she displays too much independence (Sanday, 1981) this would back up the functionalist explanation that rape is a way of keeping women subjugated. (See Brownmiller 1975). Bandura (1973, 1978) is credited with developing social learni.ng theory Social learning theory believes predominantly that aggressive behaviour of towards women is a learned response. They further point out that if an individual is exposed repeatedly to any stimulus they will begin to see this behaviour as positive and the norm. It points out that if an individual has been subjected to seeing sex and violence together that this is the stimulus that makes then associate violence and sex together as normal. This stimulus can be given through incidents that have occurred in their own personal lives or via the media. Further more the opinions of the social learning theorist are that men absorb the myths that surround rape thus justifying their actions to themselves. Myths such as * Rape is about sex. * Only certain types of women can get raped. * A Woman who is healthy could defend herself from the rapist, if she really wanted to. * The majority of women who are raped ask for it, they are promiscuous and have bad reputations. * Many women cry rape just to get back at the man they are accusing. Other aspects of social learning theory and their explanations of why men rape women is that men get desensitised to pain and humiliation by looking at pornographic material, such as magazines and videos. Social learning theory believes that rape is strongly linked to cultural traditions. Rape is seen by the social learning theorist as being the extreme end of a culture and tradition were the man is seen as being aggressive and the woman as seen as being passive. Further more that the man is seemed to take the sexual initiative whilst the woman sets the limit. The radical feminist would disagree with the social learning theories opinion that rape was partly motivated by sexual desire, pointing out that rape was all about violence and control. However it could be said that a certain amount of desire on the rapists part is needed to achieve the rape. Also that defining it only as an act of violence and control confused the motivation (the sex) and the tactics (the violent coercion). The explanations of the social learning theorist could also be criticised by pointing out that rape is not about sex as sex is supposed to involve tenderness. However prostitution is about sex and that does not involve tenderness. Social learning theorists could be criticised in their opinion that rape is partly about sex, by pointing out that the majority of rapists are in stable sexual relationships. However it does not mean that their partner is fulfilling their sexual desire. Finally it could be said that the physical harm incurred by victims of rape shows that it is purely a violent act and no one of sexual desire. However statistics show that in 80% of rapes, only the rapist uses the minimum force necessary. However just because the woman is not physically hurt does not make this a non-violent act. Further more rapes of women who are leaving a relationship tend to be particularly violent. Surely this shows that rape is about power. Although there is a slight overlap of similar thinking between the social learning theorist and the radical feminist theorist, in their believe that rape is a learned behaviour this is about as much as they agree on. Early feminist theories of sexual violence concentrated on the ‘definition, nature, causes, functions and the consequences of rape' (Ward C.A, 1995: 22). Theoretical perspectives of rape however came from a broader feminist theory which pointed to the gender differences in power between men and women as a direct cause of sexual violence. As a result of this feminists have always maintained that violence against women (including sexual violence) plays a major part in patriarchal society. Further more that rape is ‘ social tradition of male domination and female exploitation' (Brownmiller S, 1975:267). Feminist theories are in line with sociological theories of conflict. It is argued that rape is caused because women are socially, politically and economically powerless compared to men. They further argue that not only does the differences in power between men and women cause rape but that sexual violence and rape serves to maintain the status quo. Thus keeping women subordinate and in there place. ‘Feminist theories of rape have incorporated theories of psychology as well as politics, sociology and some social learning theory into their explanations of rape. However they have always emphasised their believe that patriarchy, male power over women is the major factor in rape and that rape is a crime of violence power and hostility not sex. Rose 1977, Russell 1975 point out that rape is a result of ‘social stratification and differential gender roles and socialisation' (cited in Ward C.A 1995:23). Millet 1969 pointed out that women are seen as the property of men and those men should be able to use women to seek sexual gratification when they feel the need. This is particularly true in marriage as in Britain until October 1991 there was no law on rape within marriage, except to say it was not possible. This can be traced back to Mathew Hale who was the Chief Justice in England in the 18th century. In 1736 his statemen t was published in History of the pleas of the crown, it read ‘That a husband cannot be guilty of rape committed by himself upon his lawful wife, for by their mutual consent and contract the wife hath given up herself in this kind unto the husband which she cannot retract' (Toner B 1977: 85) Radical feminists believe that even consenting sex under patriarchy can be defined as a form of rape. Dworkin points out that women are defined by their sexuality a definition which is ‘socially real. Socially absolute and intrinsically coercive' Cowling M 2002: 4). Mackinnon 1988 pointed out that women have grave problems in proving rape in court because many women are often coerced into sex if not forced. (Cited in Kelly & Radford date: 20). This is particularly true in cases of date rape and marital rape. Thus radical feminists believe that rape is a major part of patriarchy. Research undertaken in the past couple of decades has shown that sexual violence plays a major part in male power and male control of women. The radical feminist theories argue that rape is about male dominance over women ‘patriarchy pointing out that the'. ‘Centrality of rape and fear/threat of rape to the social control of women; sexual violence is theorised as the violence underpinning and maintaining male dominance and female subordination, the gender power relations of patriarchy' (Radford J 2002, cited in Women crime and law 2002) Possibly intranet notes Check this quote and re- reference. Brown miller 1976 Cited in Macguire et al : 541 jefferson ch 16 point out that ‘rape was actually the foundation of patriarchy, she further added that rape was a consciuos procces by which all men keep all women in a state of fear' (cited in Mcguire et al 1997 jefferson ch 16; 541). Although as previously mentioned feminist theories of patriarchy overlaps with social learning theory in the believe that rape is an aggressive act the radical feminist sees this aggression as more about power than sex. They further argue that patriarchy plays a major part in sexual violence. Pointing out that rape is much higher in countries was patriarchy is more prevalent. Countries such as Alfghanistan may not appear to have a high rate of female rape cases. However this could be because some societies such as alfghanistan embrace a configuration that includes interpersonal violence. Domination by males and seperation of the sexes. In countries such as Alfganistan a women is classed as second class citizens the property me. For instance once married a woman may not define her experience as rape feeling that she must obey her husband when he wishes to have sex. The term sexual violence recognises that ‘Violence is a gendered phenomenon within the context of patriarchal relations (Hester, Radford & Kelly 2002, cited in Cowling M 2002, rape and sexual assault notes, theories of rape; 4) Check this. Dworkin (1974) argued that ‘Looking for a man not caught up in male power was like looking for a needle in a haystack (Cowling M: 5, rape and d sexual assault notes). Criticisms of feminist theories are that they ignore the fact that most women are heterosexual and enjoy consenting heterosexual sex. The theories of the radical feminist make out as though the majority of sex between a man and a woman is coercive and therefore should be defined as rape. Biological theories of rape are split into two parts socio-biological and hormonal. The basics of the socio-biological explanation of why men rape women is evolutionary, the males need to procriate. However some rapists use condoms whilst raping the woman so as there is no evidence so this is not about procriation. The Hormonal explanation is based on men's testosterone levels pointing out that males are naturally more aggressive than females. However if this is the case then why do they take their aggression out on women in the form of rape and not other males Further more why don't all men rape? Box (1983) points out that a man will use different resources to gain his masculinity depending on his position within ‘class, race and gender relations' (Box S 1983: 152). He further points out that were the individual feels their position is will determine the salience of the crime committed. The crime committed will be used as a way to accomplish more masculinity. The further down the racial and class hierarchy you are the more salient the crime will be. Brown miller (1975) although a feminist argues that rape is about ‘biological drive' as opposed to learned masculinity. Another psychological theory of rape is the disease model the believe that men who rape are suffering from an identifiable mental illness which makes them impulsive they argue that this means they should not be held responsible for their crime. Another suggestion is that men who rape suffer with an uncontrollable sexual urge. It is further pointed out by that See Jefferson and Gresswell and Hollin (1994) for psychological stuff. Rape in Britain has been illegal since 1275 Check this, Rape within marriage has only been illegal since 1991. Whilst the legal definition of rape might appear to be quite clear cut it is fraught with difficulties of interpretation. For instance if the victim and the offender know each other for instance are aquantances, are dating or are married there is difficulties around the issue of consent. What constitutes consent? Even stranger is difficult as we have a society and a legal system that often holds the perpetraitor and the victim equally responsible. The myths that surround rape such as * All women want to be raped * No woman can be raped against her will * She was asking for it * If you are going to be raped you might as well enjoy it, distort and govern female sexuality (Brownmiller S, 1975: 246). Further more these myths ‘disadvantage and oppress women, but they also subtly encourage sexual violence without awareness of moral wrongdoing' ( Brown miller S 1975: 247). Finally we mostly here about via the media who portray rapists as sex crazed monsters who attack women because they are psychologically disturbed however this is a myth and there are many others Myth Fact Rapists are mentally disturbed ——— Most rapists show no signs of Psychological problems Rape is committed by strangers ———Most rapes occur indoors & most victims know their rapists Rape is the result of a sudden ——— Most rapes are planned and have sexual urge have nothing to do with uncontrollable libido Some women ask for it for ———- Rape can happen to any woman Instance, the clothes they wear/ in any situation being to provocative. The above myths all contribute to the continuation of men thinking that women are their for their sexual gratification. These myths that exist within society not only give men the right to think that rape is not a crime or that at the very lest it is not a serious crime can effect a woman's ability to define her experience as rape. Did she encourage him? Did she not put up enough of a fight? Women in Britain have fought for many years to gain equality in a man's world and in some aspects women have achieved this until it seems it comes to sex. It appears that men have maintained there right to own women and use them to have sex with when they want in order to keep them in their place. Rape exists within society because society allows it to.

Impacts of Energy Consumption

The Impacts of Energy Consumption Coming home from a long day at school, I tell myself, â€Å"Damn, I’m tired! † On top of that, it’s blazing hot outside, so I set my thermostat to the lowest possible temperature so that my apartment can cool down quickly. After I adjust the temperature, I go to the bathroom and then leave the lights on from laziness. Finally, I turn on the television to watch something until I fall fast asleep. The end of the month comes along and I walk to my mailbox to check for any bills and next thing you know I have a staggering bill from Georgia Power!It’s nothing that I should be surprised about because I have ridiculous habits when it comes to leaving things on and setting my thermostat. I’m pretty sure I’m not the only person with an energy-consuming problem. I know that millions of people do the same things I do. Reducing my energy consumption is a challenge that I want to take on to better myself and the environme nt, which is a change for the good that i have great interest in. I looked at my energy bill for the past month and I did some calculations money wise. When looked over some energy facts on the Energy Star site, it made me realize something.According to Energy Star, the government agency that helps us all save money on energy and protect the environment at the same time, the air conditioning unit consists of approximately 50% of your monthly electric bill (â€Å"Save Energy at Home†). Last month, my bill came up to $70. 71, which is high for me because I don’t really run anything in my apartment but T. V, lights, internet, and my laptop. I barely use my stove or microwave because I’m one of those college students who eats out all the time because I can’t cook. Half of $70 is $35.On top of that, the unit can possibly use more than fifty percent if you don’t maintain it properly. Sealing and insulating ducts can improve the efficiency of your heating and cooling system by as much as 20 percent – and sometimes much more (â€Å"Save Energy at Home†). That being said, it would use less energy and cost less. Energy Star also says that leaving things plugged in even when they are not using it, can consume energy. It does indeed show a difference if you practice leaving things that you don’t use unplugged (â€Å"Save Energy at Home†).It saved me around 50 kWh which doesn’t seem like much but it’s something. Next, since an HVAC unit can possibly take over your energy costs, we should all know how to reduce our consumption when it comes to the HVAC unit itself. Installing a programmable thermostat can help your HVAC system become more energy efficient (â€Å"Energy Saving Tips†). I was reading a article from the ConsumerMan section of MSNBC and came across an article stating that installing a programmable thermostat can cut your energy costs by 20% (Weisbaum).These systems that we cheris h so much can also be sources of emission into the environment we inhabit. It is said that HVAC systems can be contaminant emission sources (Batterman). Have you ever left some food laying around and come to realize that it starting growing mold? The EPA conducted a few studies that shown that the HVAC systems are the causes of biological growth, and moisture of which molds use to multiply and grow (Batterman). Therefore, it would probably be a good idea to use programmable thermostats to lower costs and emissions into the indoor environment.These thermostats can minimize the emissions when we are not at home or sleep. Aside from the costs of using the infamous HVAC units that we all cherish so much, the environmental changes is something that goes on unnoticed to people including myself. I think that it’s something that we should consider because of a number of reasons. Energy generation impacts our environment in a way that we don’t see. Most of the energy that we us e is produced by power plants that use non-renewable resources such as natural gas, oil, and coil, all of which are considered as fossil fuels. â€Å"Fossil Fuels†) Fossil Fuels account for 83% of the Unites States energy consumption (â€Å"Fossil Fuels†). All of these fuels can release harmful things like carbon dioxide, which is a dangerous greenhouse gas (â€Å"Fossil Fuels†). Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere by agricultural practices and by the burning of fossil fuels (Michaels 5). According to many people and scientists, they believe that this is what may be causing global warming. Another energy generating method is Nuclear power plants. This, in my opinion, is the most harmful way to produce energy.When nuclear plants are producing energy, they are rapidly changing the temperature, which also increases evaporation. This then increases rainfall, which can affect agriculture with a lack of good soil (â€Å"Fossil F uels†). The environmental concern of nuclear energy production comes from the disposal of nuclear waste. Spillage and leakage of nuclear radiation into the environment can cause people to develop cancer if they inhale these gases (â€Å"Fossil Fuels†). That being said, I feel as if when I use too much energy at home and in other places, I cause the releases of these harmful gases my elf. Environmental Impact of Power Generation explains that 39% percent of the energy generated today is used to make more energy (Hester 15). So this book argues that consumption is, in fact, an important factor of a consumer’s environmental footprint. All forms of electric generation can have some type of environmental impact in the world (Hester 17). For example, hydroelectric power plants may not have any impact on the air, but to construct these dams can significantly affect our natural river systems as well as the wildlife that inhabits these rivers (Wittwers 25). What about coa l?When coal is used to generate power, things like carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere (Rowland 35). The Environmental Protection Agency requires that the burners of these particular plants have control devices aimed at reducing the amount of emissions that are released. I looked up carbon dioxide in the dictionary just to have an idea of why exactly is it related to global warming. It is said that it is a greenhouse gas that affects the earth’s radiated balance, which also means that it is directly related to global warming. Another way to think about the greenhouse effect is to consider that according to physics the radiation we receive from the Sun must be equally balanced by the heat Earth radiates out to space. If we were to give back less energy than we receive, our planet would soon be too hot for life. † (â€Å"The Greenhouse Effect†) According to the research that I conducted, it is like a chain reaction. We use too much energy at home, the power plants produce more energy for our high demands, and next thing you know we humans are causing global warming.For the past couple of months, I have been getting significantly high electricity bills and I wanted to know exactly what it is that i have been doing to get such high bills when the only things i constantly run in my two bedroom apartment is: one television, a wireless router, a MacBook, and of-course, my HVAC unit. I learned that the problems are exactly what I just said, â€Å"I constantly run. † Not only that, according to online source, your HVAC unit consumes the most electricity in any household that contains one. I decided to do a project to see what I can do to help lower my energy costs as well as have a lesser impact on the environment.I looked over my Georgia Power bill and I apparently consumed 532 kWh costing me $70. 71, and 640 kWh the month before costing me a whopping $82. 69. That’s a lot for one perso n with only a TV and a computer running. So my goal was to lower those numbers as much as i can by the next billing cycle. Throughout all the research that was conducted, I decided to do exactly what my sources suggested. I set my thermostat to 77 degrees and left it there. I unplugged all of my electrical devices that were not in use and only plugged them in when I was ready to use them.The next billing cycle was up and I got my bill. For the cycle of March- April, I consumed a nice minimum of 364 kWh costing me only a small $52. 55 for that billing cycle. I was excited because my research project had turned out to be a success. Since the last bill, I saved 168 kWh. That was almost gave me $20 dollars in savings. In conclusion, I honestly feel guilty. Before all of this, I left my light on when I wasn’t using them, left my television on when I wasn’t watching it, and I even leave my office active when I wasn’t in my office.When I say active, I mean my printer s tays on at all times as well my desktop and monitor. I just never turn off my computer. It almost seems as if I’m harming the environment with my bad habits especially because I have a habit of leaving on my air conditioning because I either like my apartment freezing cold or blazing hot, depending on the weather and how I feel. The sources that I have introduced have plenty of reasons why people should strive to reduce our energy consumption so we can less impact the environment, ozone layer, and our utility bills.For one, I now feel better about knowing that I’m are contributing to a change that is bettering the environment and I’m even happier with myself knowing that I cut my electric costs by a percentage. Nowadays, I plug out everything electrical when I go to class and I now normally cut off my HVAC unit a majority of the day to reduce the humidity in my apartment, which contributes to mold and mildew. Works Cited Batterman, Stuart. HVAC Systems as Emissi on Sources. Washington: U. S Environmental Protection Agency, 1995. Print. â€Å"Energy Saving Tips. Efficiency Smart. Energy Star. Web. 20 Apr. 2012. . â€Å"Environmental Impact of Nuclear Power. † Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 04 Jan. 2012. Web. 02 Apr. 2012. . â€Å"Fossil Fuels. † Institute for Energy Research. Web. 20 Apr. 2012. . Rowland, R. H. , K. E. Gould, and E. McDonald. Environmental Impacts of Dispersed and Concentrated Siting of Coal-fired Power Plants. Palo Alto, CA: Electric Power Research Institute, 1984. 35. Print. â€Å"The Greenhouse Effect. † Earthguide: Educational Resources in Earth, Marine, Environmental and Planetary Sciences.University of California. Web. 20 Apr. 2012. . Michaels, Patrick J. , and Robert C. Balling. The Satanic Gases: Clearing the Air about Global Warming. Washington, D. C. : Cato Institute, 2000. Print. â€Å"Save Energy at Home. † Saving Energy At Home. Energy Star, 03 Jan. 2012. Web. 02 Apr. 2012. . Weisb aum, Herb. â€Å"Will Programmable Thermostat save Me Money? † Msnbc. com. Msnbc Digital Network, 26 Sept. 2007. Web. 20 Apr. 2012. . Wittwer, S. H. Food, Climate, and Carbon Dioxide: The Global Environment and World Food Production. Boca Raton: Lewis, 1995. 25-26. Print.

Abortion made illegal again essays

Abortion made illegal again essays Thirty-two years after the enactment of Roe versus Wade, abortion remains one of the most painful and controversial subjects in the United States. Of the 2.6 million unintended pregnancies (excluding miscarriages), in the U.S. each year, approximately 1.4 million women terminate their pregnancies by medically safe, legal abortions [1]. Since the legalization of abortion has occurred, deaths from abortions have declined dramatically, with more than half of abortions being performed at or before 8 weeks of pregnancy, decreasing the number of deaths from 0.2 per 100,000 procedures [1]. Abortion is when a woman who is pregnant decides to terminate her pregnancy before the birth of fetus, resulting in the death of the fetus. Women choose to terminate their pregnancies for a variety of reasons from being too young or too old, having enough children and not wanting anymore, or not being able to take care of a child financially. I feel that abortion should stay legal. For myself, I am anti -abortion but with respect to society, I am pro-choice. I think that people should however be informed of the consequences of an abortion before making a final decision. Many Americans will argue that there is a multitude of good reasons that Roe versus Wade should not be overturned. First, those situations where a variety of medical conditions in a pregnancy may have the potential to affect the health of the mother, therapeutic abortions are an option. Therapeutic abortions are also performed in cases to terminate a pregnancy in which the child has severe defects that would make it unlikely to survive. Such was the case with Sherri Finkbine, who in 1962 discovered early in her pregnancy that the drug thalidomide, that she was taking to help her sleep, caused birth defects including missing limbs, and malformed internal organs. She chose to have an abortion but went public before it occurred to warn other women about the effects of the drug. Un ...

My Life Journey and Where I Am Today Essay Example

My Life Journey and Where I Am Today Essay Example My Life Journey and Where I Am Today Essay My Life Journey and Where I Am Today Essay When I look back on my life’s goal, I had a perfect life planned out. At age 34, I should be looking forward for retirement but today I am a freshman in college. What I have learned on my life journey is that life does not always turn out the way we imagine or dream. I have had many deep valleys in my lifetime. There were days I did not know I would be where I am today. This paper will be looking at my joys and sorrows. It will also point out the reason why I decided to go to college at this point of my life. Where I was born I was born in a Clarendon, Jamaica. Clarendon is a parish in Jamaica. It is located on the south of the island, roughly half-way between the islands eastern and western ends. Located in the county of Middlesex, it is bordered by Manchester. Clarendon was named in honor of the celebrated Lord Chancellor, Sir Edward Hyde, and Earl of Clarendon. The parish was formed from a combination of three parishes: St. Dorothys, Vere and the old parish of Clarendon. Before the merger, the capital was Chapelton. The current capital, May Pen, was established as a plantation settlement by the British between 1660 and 1683 on a crossing point of the Rio Minho River. May Pen is now said to be the fastest growing rural town close to Kingston. It is well located from an administrative point of view, in the centre of a largely agricultural area, and as a midpoint on the Kingston to Manchester road. The capital of the parish, May Pen, is located at latitude 17 °44N, longitude 77 °09W. Covering an area of 1,196 sq km, Clarendon ranks as the third largest parish. The parish is predominantly a wide plain, marked by several rivers, including the Rio Minho River, which runs the length of the parish. Toward the northern end of the parish lies the Mocho Mountain, (200 ft), and Bull Head Mountain range (2800 ft), which is considered to be the geographical centre of the island. The Vere plain are other significant geographical features.. My Childhood History I was the third of the three children. I have an older sister Suzanne and an older brother. I am from a Christian family. Whenever the doors of the church are open, we were always there. Even if it was to clean the church or water flowers garden, we were always at church. I think there is still a spot on the front bench at the church where my face left a spot from sleep during church services. I lost my mother at age eleven. I was very close to my mother so I took my mother’s death real hard. The thing that kept us strong was the strong family tide we had with the church. My Childhood Memory My best family memories were the time we spend as a family before my mom passed away. We would go to the beach some weekends and special occasions. My dad had and still does have a pick-van. We would pack food and travel to the beach with family and friends and we would have a good time. I think my mom was the best Jamaican cook there was. We would have best friend chicken and the best pastry we could ever have. We always spend time as a family praying together and studying the Bible. I am where I am today because of the God fearing parents I had. Another special memory of my childhood days was our church camp, talent and sports. These are events no young persons who are involved with the church miss. On these events we out meet young people from all over Jamaica and compete in different events. I have built lifelong friends from all these events. Each summer I go back to Jamaica just to revisit these memorable events. My Role Model After losing my mother at such a young age, I become very reversed and did not talk much. There was a young lady my Pastor’s daughter Janeth who had influenced my life. She could call me on the phone or just look at me and tell me what kind of the day I was having. Janeth is a, â€Å"Jack of all Trade†. She knew how to reach young hurting person like me. We have had so many sleepless nights when she comfort me from just hurting about the lost of my mother and the many other things that was going on my life. Today Janeth and I have maintained a bond because of her ministry to a hurting heart like mine. My Educational Goal When I was in high school, I had a perfect life mapped out. I finish high school, enter college and I could not stop until I get my PHD. My life did not turn out as planned. I have always had a passion for working with troubled children. I know there are many children who have been through what I have been through and even worst. I have dedicated my life to reach out to hurt children. As I said before, our hopes and dreams do not always come true. After many years of working jobs just to bring home a paycheck; I decided I wanted to get myself equipped so I can work a job that love. I made up my mind to go back to school. With the schedule I had, going to a traditional college was out of the question. I looked at many different universities. I actually started University of Phoenix but I did not think the professors there was compassionate about their students like me who was going though chemotherapy at the time. When I spoke with one Nicole Lynch, she was kind and compassionate and I wanted to be a part of university that had supportive employees. After one conversation with Nicole, I left like I knew her for years. My Set Backs In 1995 when I was ready to go to college I was diagnosed with cancer. All my hopes and dreams were scattered. The doctors told me I did not have a lot of time. I was told I would not have children. When you serve a faithful God, only God have the last word. After many years of struggling with cancer and asking the why me questions, I was in remission. I know God has always been faithful. I then thought I found the perfect gentleman. Only to behold he was not the man for me. He started physically abusing me. I so happy I have supportive friends and families who have prayed with me to seek God’s guidance in my martial situation. I have always say divorce was not an option in my life. I could not stay in a marriage when my husband uses me has a pushing bag. With the help of my church, family and friends, I got out of my marriage with only scares. One day I was very discourage and I was having my quiet time early one morning and this Bible verse came to me, I will restore you to health and heal your wounds, declares the Lord Jeremiah 30:17. I have held on to this bible verse until today. Theoretical Reflection Although I do not fully agree with Eriksons theory of development, I can apply it to explain situations that have occurred while working in a college setting. I do not agree with the fundamental Erikson premise that unconscious and emotional behaviors, and the conflicts which arise from them, can explain human behaviors over a lifetime. Erikson divides the human life into eight stages, beginning at infancy and ending in aging and death. In each stage, a conflict must be resolved in order to move on to the next stage. Although I do not agree with Ericksons theory, three of his stages contain conflicts which explain student motivation and behavior in a college setting. I can recall several situations where Trust vs. Mistrust, Identity vs. Identity Confusion, and Intimacy vs. Isolation can reasonably explain student actions that seemed irrational to others observing the ordeals. Boyd and Bee (2006) stated that, â€Å"The conflicts of Trust vs. Mistrust and Intimacy vs. Isolation explain students dating and relationship behaviors. Often young women embark on their first real relationships in college. If they suffered abuse as children, conflicts may still exist in their Trust vs. Mistrust stage; because of this, they may not be able to establish solid relationships. Likewise, other students may enter relationships as they try to subconsciously resolve their Intimacy vs. Isolation stage† (p. 26-27). These individuals fear being alone or seek companionship; they may be involved in many relationships over the course of their college career as they attempt to solve this conflict. According to Boyd and Bee (2006), Erikson’s ‘Identity vs. Identity Confusion also has possible applications in the college setting (p88). Most first-year college students face the task of establishing their identity during their first weeks of school. These students may change their values and personalities, become involved with different social circles, try new things, and experiment with a variety of substances in order to find their niche and identity. The Identity vs. Identity Confusion conflict can also explain the creation and popularity of Greek letter and other social organizations. Learning and applying developmental theories has significantly added to my successes as both and Sunday School Teacher and beginning professional. Through the application of these theories, I find that I can better understand the situations and dilemmas that face those I work with each day. The background in theory allows me to ask more pertinent questions, allowing for students to clarify their feelings, often exposing underlying issues from their past. Students are more receptive to me because I seem to understand the many facets of their lives that affect their ehavior and academic performance. I genuinely care about those with whom I work. Life launch have me a blue print of how to use me sorrow and my victories in becoming a â€Å"Woman of Virtue† as it is portrait in Proverbs 31. Today I hold fast the God’s words that, God has restored my health and heal your wounds. References Boyd, D. , Bee, H (2006). Adult Development Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Hudson M. , Mcle an P (2006) Life Launch A Passionate Guide to the Rest of your Life: The Hudson Institute Press. My Personal Experience The Holy Bible.

Timeline of Canadas 1970 October Crisis

Timeline of Canadas 1970 October Crisis In October 1970, two cells of the Front de Libà ©ration du Quà ©bec (FLQ), a revolutionary organization promoting an independent and socialist Quebec, kidnapped British Trade Commissioner James Cross and Quebec Labour Minister Pierre Laporte. Armed forces were sent into Quebec to help the police and the federal government invoked the War Measures Act, temporarily suspending civil liberties. Key Events of the October Crisis of  1970 Here is a timeline of the key events during the October Crisis. October 5, 1970British Trade Commissioner James Cross was kidnapped in Montreal, Quebec. Ransom demands from the Liberation cell of the FLQ included the release of 23 political prisoners, $500,000 in gold, broadcast, and publication of the FLQ Manifesto, and an aircraft to take the kidnappers to Cuba or Algeria. October 6, 1970Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and Quebec Premier Robert Bourassa agreed that decisions on the FLQ demands would be made jointly by the federal government and the Quebec provincial government. The FLQ Manifesto, or excerpts of it, was published by several newspapers. Radio station CKAC received threats that James Cross would be killed if FLQ demands were not met. October 7, 1970Quebec Justice Minister Jerome Choquette said he was available for negotiations. The FLQ Manifesto was read on CKAC radio. October 8, 1970The FLQ Manifesto was read on the CBC French network Radio-Canada. October 10, 1970The Chenier cell of the FLQ kidnapped Quebec Minister of Labour Pierre Laporte. October 11, 1970Premier Bourassa received a letter from Pierre Laporte pleading for his life. October 12, 1970The Army was sent in to guard Ottawa. October 15, 1970The Quebec government invited the Army into Quebec to help local police. October 16, 1970Prime Minister Trudeau announced the proclamation of the War Measures Act, emergency legislation dating from World War I. October 17, 1970The body of Pierre Laporte was found in the trunk of a car at the airport in St.-Hubert, Quebec. November 2, 1970The Canadian federal government and the Quebec provincial government together offered a reward of $150,000 for information leading to the arrest of the kidnappers. November 6, 1970Police raided the hideout of the Chenier cell and arrested Bernard Lortie. Other cell members escaped. November 9, 1970The Quebec Justice Minister asked for the Army to stay in Quebec for another 30 days. December 3, 1970James Cross was released after police discovered where he was being held and the FLQ were given assurance of their safe passage to Cuba. Cross had lost weight but said he was not physically mistreated. December 4, 1970Federal Justice Minister John Turner said the exiles to Cuba would be for life. Five FLQ members received passage to Cuba - Jacques Cossette-Trudel, Louise Cossette-Trudel, Jacques Lanctà ´t, Marc Carbonneau and Yves Langlois. They later moved to France. Eventually, all returned to Canada and served short jail terms for kidnapping. December 24, 1970Troops were withdrawn from Quebec. December 28, 1970Paul Rose, Jacques Rose, and Francis Simard, the remaining three members of the Chenier cell, were arrested. With Bernard Lortie, they were charged with kidnapping and murder. Paul Rose and Francis Simard later received life sentences for murder. Bernard Lortie was sentenced to 20 years for kidnapping. Jacques Rose was initially acquitted but later convicted of being an accessory and sentenced to eight years in prison. February 3, 1971A report from Justice Minister John Turner on the use of the War Measures Act said 497 people were arrested. Of these, 435 were released, 62 were charged, 32 without bail. July 1980A sixth person, Nigel Barry Hamer, was charged in the kidnapping of James Cross. He was later convicted and sentenced to 12 months in jail.

Discuss the role of political parties in contemporary democracies Essay

Discuss the role of political parties in contemporary democracies. Assess whether parties have retained their position or are in - Essay Example In this manner citizens have a scope of exercising their ultimate control over the government (Rush 1998). Nature of Democracy The concept of social democracy, as manifested through a social state can be attributed to Tocqueville who was very impressed by the prevailing equality of status, manners, and customs in American society when he visited that country in 1831. He felt the essence of democracy has effectively permeated every strata of American society. This view was also echoed by Bryce who was completely overwhelmed by the egalitarian ethos of American society and felt it represented true democratic setup where each citizen felt they are on equal footing with each other fellow citizen (Bryce 1959). This feeling of equality is the lifeblood of a democratic society where democracy is more a way of life and a part of national psyche. Thus, it might be said that social democracy is an essential prerequisite for political democracy to strike firm roots in a country (Holden 1974). A s a political dispensation, democracy has to channelize and concentrate the wills of millions of citizens through some framework to the hands of the ruling few. This in a sense possibly violates basic democracy that is observed in small integrated communities. But between one-on-one democracy observed in such miniature closely knit groups and large scale democracies, there is a huge gap and it took entire humankind more than two millenniums to partially bridge that gap (Powell 1982). It must be remembered that democracy undergoes a metamorphosis as it traverses the hiatus between the micro and macro and it would be rather unfair to expect all the characteristics of micro democracies to be equally manifested in macro democracies. We can, however, conclude that macro democracies, though far from perfect, are nonetheless target oriented experiments and are not random potshots in the dark or conceived by a one or a small group of individuals who consider them to be more concerned and mo re informed than others (Sartori 1987). The whole issue about relevance of political parties in a democratic dispensation can however be judged with respect to several contexts as these happen to differ widely in their nature and content. Does ascent of O’Donnell signify descent of Republican Party? A case that might be investigated is that of the ascent of Christian O’Donnell. The ascendance of a relative outsider in the conservative echelons of American politics and the gradual emergence of tea party activists who were politically insignificant earlier brings to mind whether conventional political parties are on their way out and also whether American democracy has transcended the well established bounds of an essentially two party democracy. Christine O’Donnell is a vociferous campaigner of what she perceives as Christian moral values and is not known to have any well defined economic or political agenda. Yet such people are not only winning primaries by defe ating established politicians but also getting substantial approval from electorate as is apparent when she could garner nearly 40% of the votes polled. That she eventually lost the election is not that important as the

Accounting as the Production of Financial Data in an Organization Essay

Accounting as the Production of Financial Data in an Organization - Essay Example This paper describes such authoritative sources required in the field of accounting. Among the four source genres, professional associations or credentialing associations often stand out as the most credible and authoritative sources of information on accountancy. This comes as a result of these associations offering membership to several professionals in the accounting field. In addition, these associations set the professional and ethical standards required of all the individuals in the field of accountancy. Professionals associations involve themselves in enlightening members through seminars, conferences and workshops. Moreover, many of these associations produce publications such as scholarly journals and periodicals made available to members of the association and to the general public. Therefore it becomes evident that even though all genres serve as credible sources of information on accounting, professional associations stand out more. The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) is a professional association of Certified Public Accountants. This association stands out as an authoritative source of information on accounting due to various reasons. First, AICPA’s history runs back many years to its founding year in 1887. Therefore, its existence spans 125 years (AICPA website). Having existed for such a long period of time makes the association credible since a record of the association’s activity for all those years prove its authority over other associations whose lifespan is shorter. AIPCA boasts its large membership of around 386,000 Certified Public Accountants. The body gets acclamation as an international body since members of the association consist of individuals from 128 countries around the world. In addition, the members of the association are associates in a  variety of disciplines, among them student affiliates, education, government, public practice, and international associates. This proves that AICPA hosts a very diverse group of associates.  

Discuss the Impact of the Recession on Consumer Behavior and on Essay

Discuss the Impact of the Recession on Consumer Behavior and on Marketers - Essay Example At the same time, marketers are resorting to new promotional campaigns in order to remain competitive and gain consumer attention in the face of this current economic downturn. Food and technology Statistics indicate that six in 10 consumers have reduced the volume of frequency as it pertains to eating-out in restaurant environments (Bainbridge 2010). As a result, especially noticeable in the pizza restaurant industry, marketers have changed their promotional activities to include vouchers with significant pricing discounts (Bainbridge). Where once major companies in this industry, such as Pizza Hut, used psychographic segmentation and targeting to gain attention and loyalty, they are finding it more difficult to compete especially when their products carry high price tags over competition. Companies like Pizza Hut once had well-established consumer segments that were devoted to the brand and were able to use rather low-cost marketing and higher price methodology to ensure positionin g in terms of quality. Today, however, the recession has created price wars that continue to erode profitability especially with more consumers eating within the home and avoiding the high costs of restaurant eating. This is also noticeable in the fast food industry with new promotions being added to traditional menus, such as McDonald’s with its dollar menu variety. However, this marketing effort is not bring the type of profit results marketers had once experienced early in the recession. Today, new freebie offers and Internet-based incentives coupons are becoming the norm for many consumer segments (Glazer 2009). This shows a shift in consumer behaviour toward active searching in the consumer search process to identify coupons before they will frequent even their favourite restaurants. There is clearly a value-driven methodology in consumer groups that change their buying behaviours and choices. This is even apparent in how grocery stores market their food products, with t he new value-based consumer searching for low-cost products. Statistics indicate that 53 percent of today’s recession-minded consumers are buying fewer organic products and 50 percent are even turning toward generic or private label brands (Frozen Food Age 2008). Organic products and well-known product brands used to be the driver for significant profitability in the grocery industry, however the recession is changing the supply chain to identify new value for consumers in order to sustain their business. Morrisons, one of the largest grocers in the UK, has control over much of its supply chain and is therefore able to ride out the recession successfully by using new promotional tactics. The store is able to provide fresh food options at a much cheaper price than competition and uses this fresh quality positioning to sustain higher profitability than other markets without control over their purchasing system (Mortimer 2009). However, it shows that the consumer propensity to c hange from their loyal and trusted brands to generic and private label brands and how it has affected total marketing and purchasing/distribution strategies. The grocery industry has identified that 44 percent of shoppers now consider private label products to be on par or even better than long-standing trusted brands (just-style.com 2009). This is a danger to

People and organization management- leadership Essay

People and organization management- leadership - Essay Example The transactional leadership approach â€Å"works through creating clear structures whereby it is clear what is required of their subordinates, and the rewards that they get for following orders† ("Changing Minds"). This theory focuses on the interaction between the leaders and Subordinates.   It is rely on the concept that a leader’s role is to let his followers to know clearly what he expect from them, this theory uses the rewards and punishments approaches for getting these prospects.   8 The servant leadership model is one of the less mainstream leadership models. This theory believes that leaders have to put the interest of followers, customers, and the society ahead of their own benefit to get the success (Stevens 2003). The principle of this theory has a huge amount of recognition within leadership circles and it is described as a set of beliefs and morals that leaders are willing to embrace them. 8 There are many benefits of democratic leadership. By adopting this style of leadership better ideas and more creative solutions for the problems can take place. Group members also feel more touched by the higher management, involved and devoted to projects, all these making them more likely to care about the end outcome. Researches show that democratic style has a result to elevated productivity among group members. Empirical studies have even indicated that individuals with high self-esteem prefer democratic leadership models (Schoel, Bluemke, et al. 2011) Still, there are also downsides of democratic leadership. Even if this style has been described as the most successful and effective leadership style, it has a few downsides. In cases where roles are undefined and unclear or time is essential democratic leadership can lead to communication failures and incomplete tasks. In some situation, group members may not have the appropriate knowledge or skill to make quality contributions to the decision-making process. 14 In the modern world one often hears about

Healthcare Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Healthcare Marketing - Essay Example The follow-up is not required and no effort is made to build customer relationship. The transactional marketing relies on its quality and delivers care at sight which meets its broader objectives and goals. The relationship marketing on the other hand, relies on building constructive relations with the patients. Through newsletters and feedbacks, the healthcare organizations build trust of the patients and improve and improvise their services and products to suit the requirements of the patients. Its main focus is on acknowledging customer value and building long-term relations with the customers. The six criteria vis-Ã  -vis goal, customer contact, organizational focus, customer responsiveness, quality concern and time perspectives play significant role in relationship marketing. They provide the basic framework of relationship marketing that strengthen customers’ confidence in the service and the organization. The organizational goal changes from profit to meeting the requirements of the patients. Getting feedback from customers and keeping in touch with them is reflected in the customers’ responsiveness and higher credibility of the organization. The doctor-oriented service mainly refers to the attitude and behaviour of doctors when they are meeting or treating them. The doctors’ indifference to the appointment schedule and their lack of accountability to their patients becomes important issue within customer service in healthcare area. It is one of the major sins in the healthcare industry. The hospitals that are not transparent in their wait-list, billing or the treatment of diseases tend to lose their credibility. Transparency in the operations of healthcare services considerably inculcates trust amongst the patients. Confidential information of patients cannot be divulged to third parties without the express consent of the patients. Hospitals which tend to either disclose confidential information to third parties like research

International Transportation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

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Healthcare Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Healthcare Marketing - Essay Example The follow-up is not required and no effort is made to build customer relationship. The transactional marketing relies on its quality and delivers care at sight which meets its broader objectives and goals. The relationship marketing on the other hand, relies on building constructive relations with the patients. Through newsletters and feedbacks, the healthcare organizations build trust of the patients and improve and improvise their services and products to suit the requirements of the patients. Its main focus is on acknowledging customer value and building long-term relations with the customers. The six criteria vis-Ã  -vis goal, customer contact, organizational focus, customer responsiveness, quality concern and time perspectives play significant role in relationship marketing. They provide the basic framework of relationship marketing that strengthen customers’ confidence in the service and the organization. The organizational goal changes from profit to meeting the requirements of the patients. Getting feedback from customers and keeping in touch with them is reflected in the customers’ responsiveness and higher credibility of the organization. The doctor-oriented service mainly refers to the attitude and behaviour of doctors when they are meeting or treating them. The doctors’ indifference to the appointment schedule and their lack of accountability to their patients becomes important issue within customer service in healthcare area. It is one of the major sins in the healthcare industry. The hospitals that are not transparent in their wait-list, billing or the treatment of diseases tend to lose their credibility. Transparency in the operations of healthcare services considerably inculcates trust amongst the patients. Confidential information of patients cannot be divulged to third parties without the express consent of the patients. Hospitals which tend to either disclose confidential information to third parties like research

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Toyota's strategy for production efficiency - Essay Example ler’s end worked hand in hand to develop the sienna minivan so that in return Toyota could provide the much needed production values and techniques as far as automobile manufacturing was concerned, to Chrysler. This was seen as a one-off exercise, aimed at bridging the gap between Chrysler and Toyota, since each one of these companies was willing to learn a thing or two from the other’s realms. Chrysler was ready to share the information because it sought the help of Toyota in manufacturing the automobiles when it came to state of the art production techniques (Clifford 1998). Chrysler wanted to touch the benchmark in the industry and for that it was ready to go in an all-out fashion and work with the key automobile manufacturer, so that the benefits were mutual in the end. This was a very important merger for the two automobile manufacturers as the link provided for understanding each other’s strengths in their meticulous areas of expertise. Chrysler was willing to share its minivan know-how as it wanted to acquire the best of manufacturing skills and techniques, which is a very good initiative by the Chrysler make. In the end, the result was a win-win situation for everyone as quality was improved at both sides. 2. Many companies seek to cut costs and improve quality by introducing techniques such as just-in-time and quality circles. The results, however, often fall short of those achieved at Toyota. Why do you think this is the case? The results are usually lesser than expected. This is because the estimates are always based on the best practices but the on ground realities are usually different. The just-in-time and related quality mechanisms bank on the provision of quality at all costs, however what these processes forget is the fact that this is not always possible to reach new height and break fresh grounds. The companies thus have a hard time dealing with the improvement in quality and these techniques are not given much room to be exploited in the

US and China Negotiations with Oil Producing Countries

US and China Negotiations with Oil Producing Countries Abstract The start of the twenty first century signaled a new beginning for the United States and China in their quest for oil diplomacy with African oil producing countries. One of the characteristics of this venture is the difference in approach both countries follow to attain this natural resource. This research work, therefore, examines the diplomatic measures of the US and China in their negotiations with oil producing countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, hereafter referred to as (SSA). In particular, the results they expect or the preferences over outcomes are analyzed. It is not the intention of the study to present a comparative analysis of US and Chinese import figures or to look at their reciprocal relationship. The question is what strategic choices do the US and China make in their interaction with oil producing countries and in what way does such interaction shape oil diplomacy? An important finding is that the US and China develop different strategic paths and policy frameworks whic h strengthen the assumption that the two countries compete for SSA oil. Along these lines, the study investigates the oil diplomacy of the US and China in SSA using the strategic-choice approach as an analytical framework. Introduction In the last decade, the US and China has moved their search for oil security to the African continent. The US and China arrive on the SSA oil scene with their own motives and interests. Their single most important interest is to engage in oil diplomacy with petroleum producing states and secure the safe import of oil from the region. African states traditionally were influenced by colonial powers. However, with the rise of China and its increasing involvement in Africa, the situation is changing. The US focuses on humanitarianism, good governance and democratization of petroleum producing states in their oil diplomacy approach. China, the worlds fastest growing economy, views SSA as a welcome offloading ground for its products in exchange for oil. An economic approach focusing on enlarging its commercial interests is the driving factor for Chinas engagement with petroleum producing states. China needs more raw materials to supply in its increasing domestic demand. Instability in the Middle East, oil dependency and securing its energy interests drives the US to SSA. Keeping a watchful eye on Chinas involvement and monitoring its influence with petroleum producing states is another reason the US is devoting much of its time to this part of Africa. The US interest in the region focuses on the procurement of oil and gas, but with the establishment of the US African Command (AFRICOM), US involvement in SSA shifted in a large degree to the fight against terrorism and safeguarding of American oil operations. Analytical Framework Lake Powell (1999) formulated an approach that makes it easier for students of international relations to explain the choices actors make, whether these actors are states, parties, ethnic groups, companies, leaders or individuals. This approach is used in the paper to explain the strategic interaction of the US and China with oil producing countries and not the strategic interaction between the US and China. The argument is that both countries have independent influencing power and exercise an asymmetric relationship with oil producing countries. In SSA the preferences and beliefs of the US and China in conjunction with the strategic environment are the core attributes on which the strategic-choice approach is based. In the SSA oil environment, there are many beliefs and preferences which have an effect on interaction and the formulation of policy frameworks. What are the oil security preferences of the US and China in SSA, and how is it influenced by the environment? Changes in the behavior of actors are often difficult to perceive in the strategic-choice approach (Lake Powell, 1999). Whenever changes in the behavior of actors do take place, it is primarily done through learning, through changes in the actors environment or by analyzing the actors as more basic actors Lake Powell, 1999). In this study, the methodological bet would disaggregate the actors into more basic actors, such as the individual beliefs of the energy departments, national leaders, multinational oil corporations, bureaucrats and individuals. Frieden (1999: 50) mentions the concept of actors preferences over choices, and how the outcomes affect strategic interaction between actors in the same setting. The preference in a particular setting leads the agent to devise a strategy. Analysts of international relations have long debated how preferences and the strategic environment affect outcomes, jointly and separately. Many debates in the field have to do with whether outcomes are primarily the result of the constraints of the international system or of differences among national preferences (Frieden, 1999:50). A strong variant of realism, for example, implies that state preferences are so overwhelmed by the pressures of interstate competition that all states must pursue essentially identical strategies. A strong domestic, dominance perspective might, on the other hand, argue that different state strategies flow primarily from different national characteristics and preferences. Due to the continuous rise of new issues in SSA oil politics, the argument is that preferences are shaped by environmental factors and thus not static. It will be difficult, therefore, to separate the preferences of the actors from the strategic environment. The assumption is that a cycle of interaction is proposed deriving from the interplay of preferences and strategies. In the SSA oil setting, the US and China in deciding what preferences over outcomes they desire, have to take political environmental constraints into consideration, because the oil-induced political environment is constantly changing. Instability of oil producing countries, corruption, the negative consequences of having oil reserves, bad governance and terrorism are contributing factors to this changing environment. In more stable, homogenous oil environments, the actors preferences are more constant. The environment in North Africa is a region with a more or less stable oil infrastructure, where actors formulate clear, definable goals, separate from such environmental influence. The North African oil producing states of Libya, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia and Egypt have a strong unifying Muslim culture, and they can shape their preferences around a common goal. In SSA, the environment and the choices actors make are separated, because of ethnic division, religious differences, corruption, instability, bad governance and the gross mismanagement of oil revenues. These factors then make it difficult for leaders to shape preferences without interference of political constraints. In reality, leaders of oil states will base individual preferences on self-enrichment and state goals on the dynamics of interplay between actors in the strategic setting. The main energy security debate for the American and Chinese government in the twenty first century focuses on the concept of oil dependence. Diversification of import channels, safe delivery of imports and establishing reasonable prices are factors that influence the decision-making of policymakers. US-Sino oil diplomacy in SSA thus follows different paths. Because both countries arrived relatively late on the oil scene in this part of Africa, were not previous colonial masters, and had limited strategic ties with petroleum producing states, SSA now presents new challenges to the US and Chinese governments in their quest for oil. Engaging in diplomatic talks broaden oil horizons and establish measures along which oil security is negotiated. From the perspective of increasing oil imports and acquiring new exploration and drilling licenses, oil diplomacy is vital for sustaining negotiations on a continuous basis. However, for diplomacy to be an effective tool, the US and China need to formulate preferences or policy beliefs. The next section presents a brief overview of US and Chinese expansion into the SSA oil fields in the last couple of years. The aim is to identify the major oil producing countries with whom the US and China have signed deals and not to present import and expo rt figures. Looking at the allocation of exploration contracts to the US and China by SSA oil producers, it becomes clear that these countries are siding with either the US or China. The point is that diplomacy and strategic interaction are deciding factors influencing the relationship. For example, Nigeria and Angola as two of SSAs major oil producing countries have strong relationships with both powers, but their interaction differ. US and Chinese Expansion into Sub-Saharan Africa Oil Fields The growing expansion of Chinese national oil companies into Africas oil markets is perhaps the aspect of Sino-African relations that most concerns the international community (Taylor, 2009: 37). Chinese firms are actively seeking resources of every kind: copper, bauxite, uranium, aluminum, manganese, iron ore, and more. However, the issues surrounding oil are of particular interest to Western policymakers studying Chinas rise (Lyman, 2006). Indeed, although China and the US do not rely on one another for energy supplies, the possibility that oil will be the subject of future disagreements between them is arguably high and thus has a bearing on much of the commentary on Sino-African energy policies (Zha, 1999: 69). Certainly, there is concern that Beijings procurement of energy supplies will pose a challenge to the global dominance of Washington at a time when levels of cooperation between the two governments on matters of energy are at best weak (Dreyer, 2007: 461). In contrast to t he days of Maoist solidarity, contemporary Chinas economic dealings with Africa are, in the main, based on an unfriendly evaluation of commercial potential. Indeed, to reiterate, Chinas rapidly developing oil requirements have helped propel Sin-African trade at the turn of the millennium (Taylor, 2009: 44). A select listing of recent contracts signed by Chinas national oil companies gives a flavor of the geographical extent of Chinese interest in SSA oil. In 2004, Total Gabon signed a contract with Sinopec for exporting Gabonese crude oil into China. Angola received a US$ billion loan in 2005 in exchange for oil deals with China, which added another US$1 billion to the loan in March 2006. Also in 2005, the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation signed a US$800 million deal with PetroChina to supply 30,000 barrels of crude per day to China. In 2006, CNOOC agreed to pay US$2.3 billion for a stake in a Nigerian oil and gas field (Taylor, 2009: 45). Chinese oil companies also reportedl y signed contracts to begin offshore oil exploration and production in Congo-Brazzaville and began oil exploration in northern Namibia with the intent to establish an oil refinery. In addition, Nigeria announced that that it would give the first right of refusal on four oil exploration blocks to CNPC in exchange for a commitment to invest US$4 billion in infrastructure (Taylor, 2009: 46). Clearly, Chinas energy interests in Africa are growing exponentially. Indeed, in 2006, China imported 920,000 barrels a day of crude oil, or 31 percent of its total crude imports, from Africa. Moreover, Chinese national oil companies are still relatively small players on the continent. â€Å"The commercial value of the oil investments in Africa of Chinas NOCs is just 8 percent of the combined commercial value of the (international oil companies) investments in African oil and 3 percent of all companies invested in African oil† (Downs, 2007: 42). A central criticism of these contracts revolve s around the tactics and strategies by which Chinese corporations enter into them. For instance, on February 16, 2006, Chinaafrica, an official Chinese publication, quoted Wang Yingping of the China Institute of International Studies (CIIS), as asserting that â€Å"Chinese businesses pay greater attention to protecting the environment when building factories and exploring for Africas rich reserves in oil†; two months later, it cited, without comment, the assertion by Sierra Leones ambassador to China that â€Å"the Chinese just come and do it. They dont hold meetings about environmental impact assessments, human rights, bad governance and good governance. Im not saying its right, just that Chinese investment is succeeding because they dont set high benchmarks† (Taylor, 2009: 47).  Ã‚  Ã‚   The US is obsessed with oil imports from the Middle East and pays little or no attention to SSA. This region supplies as much black gold to the US as the Persian Gulf States. According to (Donelson, 2008) the region also lend itself to just as much (if not more) danger of unexpected supply disruption. For this reason AFRICOM, the new US military administrative headquarters [one of six regional headquarters (HQs) worldwide] was established. The military demand center is devoted to relations with 53 countries (Donelson, 2008). At the end of 2007, SSA accounted for nearly 16% of US daily imports, versus just over 18% for the Persian Gulf States and just over 18% for Canada. The country in seventh place is Angola with 507,000 barrels a day, just behind Algeria. Chad, Gabon, Congo (Brazzaville), and Equatorial Guinea are petroleum suppliers to the US as well, along with minor players including South Africa, Mauritania, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa . One country with strong oil reserves is Nigeria, but unfortunately the region is vulnerable to disruption. The destroying of oil pumping stations, pipelines, and other distribution facilities are at the order of the day by rebel groups, opposing the rule of President Umaru YarAdua. According to Donelson (2008), The Bold Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta has sent militants in boats through heavy seas to attack the Bonga oil fields more than 65 miles from land, temporarily shutting down production of more than 200,000 barrels a day. But there are also other groups, such as white-collar oil workers threatening the supply of oil if their negotiation demands are not met. But the main issue the US faces is competition from other countries, especially from China. Donelson (2008) points out that the Angola supplied almost as much oil (465,000 barrels daily) to China as they did to the US in 2007 and that number will almost certainly go up as a report by the Council of Forei gn Relations states: â€Å"Beijing secured a major stake in future oil production in 2004 with a $2 billion package of loans and aid that includes funds for Chinese companies to build railroads, schools, roads, hospitals, bridges, and offices; lay a fiber-optic network; and train Angolan telecommunications workers† (Donelson, 2008: 2). The President of Angola, Jose Eduardo dos Santos served as his partys, (MPLA) representative to China, after receiving his degree from the Azerbaijan Oil and Chemistry Institute in the old USSR. This was shortly before he became president. The relationship between dos Santos and the US is not build on a solid foundation and is to say the least very unreliable. There is no guarantee that the country will live up to its promise of providing the US with a continuous supply of oil, after such a long time of instability and civil war. With two of the top seven U.S. oil suppliers vulnerable to supply disruptions at any moment; is it any wonder that the American military presence in Africa is slated for the major expansion (Donelson, 2008). In a nutshell, before moving on to the strategic-choice analysis, what are the motivations for the US and China to enter the SSA oil market? Trade and economical intentions are high on Chinas African business agenda, offloading Chinese products in the host countries in exchange for oil and other resources. Traditionally, African states relied on western colonial powers for economic aid and influence. However, the situation is slowly changing with the rise of China and its increasing involvement in Africa. The supply of oil in return for investments and other economical incentives are the driving force for petroleum producing states to establish relations with China. SSA is a source of growing importance in the supply of oil. The region is likely to become as important a source of US energy imports as the Middle East. The US is in competition for access to oil, not only to China but also with India and Europe. Therefore, the US interest in SSA includes promoting democracy, good govern ance and transparency in economies of petroleum producing states, along with establishing a strong military command to protect its oil interests and monitor the actions of militant groups.  Ã‚   However, diplomacy is an effective tool if preferences and policy beliefs are formulated around certain goals. This is what the next chapter is going to achieve, investigating the policy beliefs of the US and China and the way it contributes to effective oil diplomatic measures.   US-Sino Oil Diplomacy in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Strategic-Choice Analysis During the twentieth century, US and Chinas preference thinking regarding Africa was greatly influenced by ideological thinking. The contest between establishing democracy or communism in Africa was evident of US-Chinese intervention on the African continent. The US followed liberalization policies to free oppressing regimes from authoritarian, communist rule, while China viewed Africa as an open domain to introduce communism. A result of these opposing preferences by the US and China was that African countries were introduced to different ideological doctrines, which laid the foundation for African countries to establish their own state goals. Hostility of certain petroleum producing states toward cooperation with either the US or China, favoring one state over the other because of ideological and economical preferences, domestic conflict in Nigeria, violations of human rights in Sudan, the war on terror in conjunction with Muslim extremism and the general poor living and health con ditions in SSA, are factors that limit the American and Chinese governments to implement successful strategies. On the other hand, the US and China can certainly benefit from the individual preferences of state leaders and actors in the oil industry. For example, the goals of multinational oil corporations and the individual beliefs of business leaders contribute to the formulation of a national grand strategy for SSA.   In analyzing the strategic interest of the US in the SSA oil setting, the ideological preference of the US to promote democracy and good governance in African countries is a condition when strategies based on democratic principles are to be devised. â€Å"Oil is where you find it. Oil companies cannot always invest in democratically governed countries. It would be ideal if it could be guaranteed that the head of an African country where a US oil company invested was, in fact, an advocate of democracy and always respected human rights. Unfortunately, that is not a realistic expectation in todays Africa or in most other oil producing regions of the world. It is important to urge and cajole and to nudge the leaders of the oil producing countries towards establishing inclusive democracies and good governance† (Wihbey, Schutz, 2002: 4). This is the task of US diplomacy. In Sudan, the US government is supporting the initiatives of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative ( EITI) (The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, 2007). Countries that underwrite the initiatives and programs of the EITI have preferences toward establishing good governance principles in countries that depend on the extraction of natural resources, and to eradicate the exploitation of these resources. Initiatives that seek to promote good governance principles can only be successful if the supporting countries maintain these same good government principles at home. The SSA oil strategic setting allows for many actors, whether they are governmental institutions, non-governmental institutions, non-state actors or individuals, such as the residents of the Niger delta and Southern Sudan and the multitude of multinational oil corporations (MNCs), to formulate their own goals and pursue unique strategies. However, environmental constrains, such as transportation difficulties and inaccessibility of areas in the Niger Delta, further accentuates the problem actors experience to reach solutions on common grounds. Then there are also religious divisions between Muslims and Christians, ethnic conflicts between the different tribes living in the Niger Delta, the self-interested or ambitious goals of MNCs in the central government. These factors are all having an immoralizing effect on the negotiation process. Rebel groups operating from the Niger Delta, some of which pursue their own agendas and others, which are in unison with the goals of religious and ethnic groups, are at the moment taking the main stage in setting preferences for Niger Delta peace talks. The movement for the emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND)can be cited as a group that has extremely hostile feelings toward the presence of foreign and in particular western oil companies (The movement for the emancipation of the Nige r Delta, 2011). In a January 2006, MEND warned the oil industry: It must be clear that the Nigerian government cannot protect your workers or assets. Leave our land while you can or die in it. Our aim is to totally destroy the capacity of the Nigerian government to export oil† (Hanson, 2007: 2). One can assume from this statement, that MEND has a preference for the protection of their land from foreign invasion. They voice strong, emotional concern over foreign oil workers occupying their land and will take extreme measures expelling these oil workers from their land. Whether, they really are interested in finding solutions to the ongoing delta conflict is an open question. Their findings are that anti-government groups, supporting the goals of Muslim extremists and anti-western lobbyists are greatly responsible for the chaos and anarchy characterizing the situation in the delta. Accusations that western oil companies are destroying the natural habitat of certain fish populations and are responsible for the ethnic conflict are treated with contempt by oil companies, such as Shell and ExconMobil, (Howden, 2006) both which invested heavily in the Nigerian oil industry. Oil operations of these companies are conducted in harmony with the natural environment, and that one of their missions is to protect the Niger Delta from over-exploitation and unnecessary pollution. It is all a question of respecting the rights of citizens living in the area and caring about the natural environment, which is an aspect that is neglected by foreign oil companies operating in the Delta. In making a final analysis regarding the preferences of the actors in the Nigerian conflic t, it is necessary that common ground has to be found between the actors. An environment where actors pursue harmonious interests will be beneficial to all. As long as the local residents view foreign oil workers as intruders on their land, pursuing ambitious, and self-interested goals and not returning revenue into local community development programs, the chances that a final solution to the conflict be reached, are small. If one or both of these powers can accept the role of mediator, laying down guidelines for further negotiations, the negotiation process will enjoy a substantial boost. This mediating role will not only help the conflicting parties, but will in effect put the concept of energy security on the negotiating table. On the other hand, for parties to commence a mediating role, they should have an unbiased attitude toward the conflicting parties. Both these countries have strong and clear intentions to use oil diplomacy to their own benefit and manipulate the results in the SSA oil strategic setting. In SSA, AFRICOM is set out to achieve military dominance on the African continent and establish military strategic partnerships with petroleum producing countries. Nigeria, Sao Tome and Principe and Angola along the west coast of Africa are the main hotspots for US and Chinese oil interests. Nigeria is the biggest exporter of oil in the region, and in the last five years had allocated valuable oil drilling licenses to US and Chinese oil companies. Nigeria already supplies the oil needs of these two giants, especially to the US. Sao Tome and Principe and Nigeria (Sao Tome, Nigeria sign oil deal with US-led consortium, 2005) signed a milestone contract to give a consortium led by the US based oil company, ChevronTexaco, rights to drill in the two countries shared Gulf of Guinea oil exploration zone. China has secured four oil-drilling licenses from Nigeria in the last three years. In exchange, China will invest US$4bn in oil and infrastructure projects in Nigeria (BBC News, 2006). Nigeria, Africas top oil exporter, has long been viewed by China as a partner. From the recent contracts allocated by the governments of Nigeria and Sao Tome and Principe to US and Chinese based oil companies, it becomes clear that US-Sino oil diplomacy in SSA focus on establishing long-lasting relationships (BBC News, 2006). The giant Chinese state-owned China National Offshore Oil Corporation, CNOOC, has reached a deal to buy a 45 percent stake in a Nigerian oil field for more than US$2 billion. The purchase, if approved by both governments, would be Chinas first major venture into oil-rich Nigeria. Analysts say the Nigerian bid will not be easy for CNOOC, which has no experience in dealing with Nigeria, a country rated as a difficult place to do business. The international anti-corruption group Transparency International ranks the country as the sixth most corrupt nation in the world. The American oil company Chevron did not bid on this block, and that would imply they did not believe the values were there. So this is certainly a hurdle which CNOOC will have to overcome. Chinese and Nigerian governments will sign two important agreements: one on economic and technology cooperation and a memorandum of understanding on developing a strategic partnership. China is offering assistance in the form of building new tanker terminals, refineries and possible pipelines to export the oil from remote regions to the coast for easy loading (Ramirez, 2006). China is streamlining the oil infrastructure in SSA, according to their specific needs. This is an infrastructure that on the one hand satisfies their oil demands, but on the other hand leaves the host country no choice but to become dependent on the Chinese oil expertise.The result is that petroleum producing countries in the long run will be more dependent on Chinese investments to sustain their economies, rather than China being dependent on their oil imports. This interaction clearly indicates that Chinas preferences are shaped on establishing some sort of economic superiority over their oil strategic partners and forcing petroleum producing states to be dependent on Chinese intervention. If China has more control over the oil affairs of host countries, it will give them a stronger bargaining base and increase their strategic advantage. The longterm goal of countries that seek to control the economies of its trading partners is to transform economic gains into security gains, so that in the long run, economics and security are inseparable (Snidal, 1993: 73). When China can control the economies of petroleum producing states, it will have strong incentives to move one step further and create military strategic partnerships. The supply of military equipment, providing of nuclear technology, and perhaps positioning of Chinese troops in petroleum producing states, as overseers of its oil operations, cannot be excluded from its African engagement strategy. By successfully negotiating with petroleum producing states and gaining diplomatic prestige, the other state will immediately be in a less favorable situation. In doing so, the preferences will have a stronger strategic value and gives stronger bargaining power. Strategic values or interests are valued not for themselves, but for their contribution to the protection or promotion of other interests in the future. They are â€Å"interests defined in terms of power†, to recall Morgenthaus memorable phrase (Snyder, 1997: 23). The motivation for the US and China is to try and establish alignments with petroleum producing states. In this way, they their strategic values will be more clearly defined and they can implement strategies to control certain oil fields, offshore oil rigs, pipelines and sea passages. The indication is that the sea around the west coast of Africa, stretching from Nigeria in the north to Angola in the south, is expected to raise problems concerning the transpo rtation of future oil supplies. Because the US and China both have to use these sealanes to transport crude oil and gas, it might become a point of conflict. Determining Preferences Preference determination is typically specified in one of three ways: by assumption, by observation and by deduction (Frieden, 1999, p. 53). The objective with this section is to explore these ways and determine their analytical value in the context of the actors preferences in the SSA oil strategic setting, with the main emphasis being on the US and China. Because the US and China both have energy security interests, they have formulated energy security policies at the national level, and these policies are based on assumptions of realism or liberalism. Determining the preferences of the US and China by deducing preferences from these assumptions will offer one of the most analytically satisfying routes to see what specific preferences they hold in the SSA oil strategic setting. It is easiest to assume preferences. In the principal application in international relations to the preferences of nation-states, the simplest assumption might be that states attempt to maximize national wel fare, or assume that states maximize national resources (Frieden, 1999: 53). A comparison between the preferences of economics and the preferences of international politics shows that there are distinctions with regards to the actors involved and the goals they pursue. In economics, there is limited variation in the cast of characters, particularly firms and individuals. Firms prefer profit maximization and individuals prefer wealth maximization (Niou, Ordeshook. Rose, 1999: 54). However, international politics involves individuals, firms, groups, nation-states, international organizations and transnational actors. The preferences of ChevronTexaco and Chinas Petroleum and Chemical Corporation (Sinopec), may in general terms be homogenous, they are engaged in every aspect of the oil and natural gas industry in the SSA oil industry, including exploration and production, refining, marketing and transportation, chemicals, manufacturing and sales (The leadership functions of Chevron Texaco , 2007). However, the reality is that American and Chinese oil companies operating in SSA are in effect not only serving the interests of the oil industry and acting as channels for the procurement of oil imports for their local economies, but they also serve as useful instruments in the hands of politicians to control and manipulate the oil industries of the agent states. Expansion of US and Chinese oil operations in SSA since the start of the twenty first century are providing them with more power on the continent. The direct result of gaining more power in the oil industry is that the petroleum producing states are getting entangled in a web of either American or Chinese influence. This influence is leading to a state of dependency of petroleum producing states on US and Chinese involvement in their oil industries. In terms of economic considerations, the US and China prefer different outcomes in their oil diplomacy with petroleum producing states. The US regards the pursuing of economical interests a US and China Negotiations with Oil Producing Countries US and China Negotiations with Oil Producing Countries Abstract The start of the twenty first century signaled a new beginning for the United States and China in their quest for oil diplomacy with African oil producing countries. One of the characteristics of this venture is the difference in approach both countries follow to attain this natural resource. This research work, therefore, examines the diplomatic measures of the US and China in their negotiations with oil producing countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, hereafter referred to as (SSA). In particular, the results they expect or the preferences over outcomes are analyzed. It is not the intention of the study to present a comparative analysis of US and Chinese import figures or to look at their reciprocal relationship. The question is what strategic choices do the US and China make in their interaction with oil producing countries and in what way does such interaction shape oil diplomacy? An important finding is that the US and China develop different strategic paths and policy frameworks whic h strengthen the assumption that the two countries compete for SSA oil. Along these lines, the study investigates the oil diplomacy of the US and China in SSA using the strategic-choice approach as an analytical framework. Introduction In the last decade, the US and China has moved their search for oil security to the African continent. The US and China arrive on the SSA oil scene with their own motives and interests. Their single most important interest is to engage in oil diplomacy with petroleum producing states and secure the safe import of oil from the region. African states traditionally were influenced by colonial powers. However, with the rise of China and its increasing involvement in Africa, the situation is changing. The US focuses on humanitarianism, good governance and democratization of petroleum producing states in their oil diplomacy approach. China, the worlds fastest growing economy, views SSA as a welcome offloading ground for its products in exchange for oil. An economic approach focusing on enlarging its commercial interests is the driving factor for Chinas engagement with petroleum producing states. China needs more raw materials to supply in its increasing domestic demand. Instability in the Middle East, oil dependency and securing its energy interests drives the US to SSA. Keeping a watchful eye on Chinas involvement and monitoring its influence with petroleum producing states is another reason the US is devoting much of its time to this part of Africa. The US interest in the region focuses on the procurement of oil and gas, but with the establishment of the US African Command (AFRICOM), US involvement in SSA shifted in a large degree to the fight against terrorism and safeguarding of American oil operations. Analytical Framework Lake Powell (1999) formulated an approach that makes it easier for students of international relations to explain the choices actors make, whether these actors are states, parties, ethnic groups, companies, leaders or individuals. This approach is used in the paper to explain the strategic interaction of the US and China with oil producing countries and not the strategic interaction between the US and China. The argument is that both countries have independent influencing power and exercise an asymmetric relationship with oil producing countries. In SSA the preferences and beliefs of the US and China in conjunction with the strategic environment are the core attributes on which the strategic-choice approach is based. In the SSA oil environment, there are many beliefs and preferences which have an effect on interaction and the formulation of policy frameworks. What are the oil security preferences of the US and China in SSA, and how is it influenced by the environment? Changes in the behavior of actors are often difficult to perceive in the strategic-choice approach (Lake Powell, 1999). Whenever changes in the behavior of actors do take place, it is primarily done through learning, through changes in the actors environment or by analyzing the actors as more basic actors Lake Powell, 1999). In this study, the methodological bet would disaggregate the actors into more basic actors, such as the individual beliefs of the energy departments, national leaders, multinational oil corporations, bureaucrats and individuals. Frieden (1999: 50) mentions the concept of actors preferences over choices, and how the outcomes affect strategic interaction between actors in the same setting. The preference in a particular setting leads the agent to devise a strategy. Analysts of international relations have long debated how preferences and the strategic environment affect outcomes, jointly and separately. Many debates in the field have to do with whether outcomes are primarily the result of the constraints of the international system or of differences among national preferences (Frieden, 1999:50). A strong variant of realism, for example, implies that state preferences are so overwhelmed by the pressures of interstate competition that all states must pursue essentially identical strategies. A strong domestic, dominance perspective might, on the other hand, argue that different state strategies flow primarily from different national characteristics and preferences. Due to the continuous rise of new issues in SSA oil politics, the argument is that preferences are shaped by environmental factors and thus not static. It will be difficult, therefore, to separate the preferences of the actors from the strategic environment. The assumption is that a cycle of interaction is proposed deriving from the interplay of preferences and strategies. In the SSA oil setting, the US and China in deciding what preferences over outcomes they desire, have to take political environmental constraints into consideration, because the oil-induced political environment is constantly changing. Instability of oil producing countries, corruption, the negative consequences of having oil reserves, bad governance and terrorism are contributing factors to this changing environment. In more stable, homogenous oil environments, the actors preferences are more constant. The environment in North Africa is a region with a more or less stable oil infrastructure, where actors formulate clear, definable goals, separate from such environmental influence. The North African oil producing states of Libya, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia and Egypt have a strong unifying Muslim culture, and they can shape their preferences around a common goal. In SSA, the environment and the choices actors make are separated, because of ethnic division, religious differences, corruption, instability, bad governance and the gross mismanagement of oil revenues. These factors then make it difficult for leaders to shape preferences without interference of political constraints. In reality, leaders of oil states will base individual preferences on self-enrichment and state goals on the dynamics of interplay between actors in the strategic setting. The main energy security debate for the American and Chinese government in the twenty first century focuses on the concept of oil dependence. Diversification of import channels, safe delivery of imports and establishing reasonable prices are factors that influence the decision-making of policymakers. US-Sino oil diplomacy in SSA thus follows different paths. Because both countries arrived relatively late on the oil scene in this part of Africa, were not previous colonial masters, and had limited strategic ties with petroleum producing states, SSA now presents new challenges to the US and Chinese governments in their quest for oil. Engaging in diplomatic talks broaden oil horizons and establish measures along which oil security is negotiated. From the perspective of increasing oil imports and acquiring new exploration and drilling licenses, oil diplomacy is vital for sustaining negotiations on a continuous basis. However, for diplomacy to be an effective tool, the US and China need to formulate preferences or policy beliefs. The next section presents a brief overview of US and Chinese expansion into the SSA oil fields in the last couple of years. The aim is to identify the major oil producing countries with whom the US and China have signed deals and not to present import and expo rt figures. Looking at the allocation of exploration contracts to the US and China by SSA oil producers, it becomes clear that these countries are siding with either the US or China. The point is that diplomacy and strategic interaction are deciding factors influencing the relationship. For example, Nigeria and Angola as two of SSAs major oil producing countries have strong relationships with both powers, but their interaction differ. US and Chinese Expansion into Sub-Saharan Africa Oil Fields The growing expansion of Chinese national oil companies into Africas oil markets is perhaps the aspect of Sino-African relations that most concerns the international community (Taylor, 2009: 37). Chinese firms are actively seeking resources of every kind: copper, bauxite, uranium, aluminum, manganese, iron ore, and more. However, the issues surrounding oil are of particular interest to Western policymakers studying Chinas rise (Lyman, 2006). Indeed, although China and the US do not rely on one another for energy supplies, the possibility that oil will be the subject of future disagreements between them is arguably high and thus has a bearing on much of the commentary on Sino-African energy policies (Zha, 1999: 69). Certainly, there is concern that Beijings procurement of energy supplies will pose a challenge to the global dominance of Washington at a time when levels of cooperation between the two governments on matters of energy are at best weak (Dreyer, 2007: 461). In contrast to t he days of Maoist solidarity, contemporary Chinas economic dealings with Africa are, in the main, based on an unfriendly evaluation of commercial potential. Indeed, to reiterate, Chinas rapidly developing oil requirements have helped propel Sin-African trade at the turn of the millennium (Taylor, 2009: 44). A select listing of recent contracts signed by Chinas national oil companies gives a flavor of the geographical extent of Chinese interest in SSA oil. In 2004, Total Gabon signed a contract with Sinopec for exporting Gabonese crude oil into China. Angola received a US$ billion loan in 2005 in exchange for oil deals with China, which added another US$1 billion to the loan in March 2006. Also in 2005, the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation signed a US$800 million deal with PetroChina to supply 30,000 barrels of crude per day to China. In 2006, CNOOC agreed to pay US$2.3 billion for a stake in a Nigerian oil and gas field (Taylor, 2009: 45). Chinese oil companies also reportedl y signed contracts to begin offshore oil exploration and production in Congo-Brazzaville and began oil exploration in northern Namibia with the intent to establish an oil refinery. In addition, Nigeria announced that that it would give the first right of refusal on four oil exploration blocks to CNPC in exchange for a commitment to invest US$4 billion in infrastructure (Taylor, 2009: 46). Clearly, Chinas energy interests in Africa are growing exponentially. Indeed, in 2006, China imported 920,000 barrels a day of crude oil, or 31 percent of its total crude imports, from Africa. Moreover, Chinese national oil companies are still relatively small players on the continent. â€Å"The commercial value of the oil investments in Africa of Chinas NOCs is just 8 percent of the combined commercial value of the (international oil companies) investments in African oil and 3 percent of all companies invested in African oil† (Downs, 2007: 42). A central criticism of these contracts revolve s around the tactics and strategies by which Chinese corporations enter into them. For instance, on February 16, 2006, Chinaafrica, an official Chinese publication, quoted Wang Yingping of the China Institute of International Studies (CIIS), as asserting that â€Å"Chinese businesses pay greater attention to protecting the environment when building factories and exploring for Africas rich reserves in oil†; two months later, it cited, without comment, the assertion by Sierra Leones ambassador to China that â€Å"the Chinese just come and do it. They dont hold meetings about environmental impact assessments, human rights, bad governance and good governance. Im not saying its right, just that Chinese investment is succeeding because they dont set high benchmarks† (Taylor, 2009: 47).  Ã‚  Ã‚   The US is obsessed with oil imports from the Middle East and pays little or no attention to SSA. This region supplies as much black gold to the US as the Persian Gulf States. According to (Donelson, 2008) the region also lend itself to just as much (if not more) danger of unexpected supply disruption. For this reason AFRICOM, the new US military administrative headquarters [one of six regional headquarters (HQs) worldwide] was established. The military demand center is devoted to relations with 53 countries (Donelson, 2008). At the end of 2007, SSA accounted for nearly 16% of US daily imports, versus just over 18% for the Persian Gulf States and just over 18% for Canada. The country in seventh place is Angola with 507,000 barrels a day, just behind Algeria. Chad, Gabon, Congo (Brazzaville), and Equatorial Guinea are petroleum suppliers to the US as well, along with minor players including South Africa, Mauritania, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa . One country with strong oil reserves is Nigeria, but unfortunately the region is vulnerable to disruption. The destroying of oil pumping stations, pipelines, and other distribution facilities are at the order of the day by rebel groups, opposing the rule of President Umaru YarAdua. According to Donelson (2008), The Bold Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta has sent militants in boats through heavy seas to attack the Bonga oil fields more than 65 miles from land, temporarily shutting down production of more than 200,000 barrels a day. But there are also other groups, such as white-collar oil workers threatening the supply of oil if their negotiation demands are not met. But the main issue the US faces is competition from other countries, especially from China. Donelson (2008) points out that the Angola supplied almost as much oil (465,000 barrels daily) to China as they did to the US in 2007 and that number will almost certainly go up as a report by the Council of Forei gn Relations states: â€Å"Beijing secured a major stake in future oil production in 2004 with a $2 billion package of loans and aid that includes funds for Chinese companies to build railroads, schools, roads, hospitals, bridges, and offices; lay a fiber-optic network; and train Angolan telecommunications workers† (Donelson, 2008: 2). The President of Angola, Jose Eduardo dos Santos served as his partys, (MPLA) representative to China, after receiving his degree from the Azerbaijan Oil and Chemistry Institute in the old USSR. This was shortly before he became president. The relationship between dos Santos and the US is not build on a solid foundation and is to say the least very unreliable. There is no guarantee that the country will live up to its promise of providing the US with a continuous supply of oil, after such a long time of instability and civil war. With two of the top seven U.S. oil suppliers vulnerable to supply disruptions at any moment; is it any wonder that the American military presence in Africa is slated for the major expansion (Donelson, 2008). In a nutshell, before moving on to the strategic-choice analysis, what are the motivations for the US and China to enter the SSA oil market? Trade and economical intentions are high on Chinas African business agenda, offloading Chinese products in the host countries in exchange for oil and other resources. Traditionally, African states relied on western colonial powers for economic aid and influence. However, the situation is slowly changing with the rise of China and its increasing involvement in Africa. The supply of oil in return for investments and other economical incentives are the driving force for petroleum producing states to establish relations with China. SSA is a source of growing importance in the supply of oil. The region is likely to become as important a source of US energy imports as the Middle East. The US is in competition for access to oil, not only to China but also with India and Europe. Therefore, the US interest in SSA includes promoting democracy, good govern ance and transparency in economies of petroleum producing states, along with establishing a strong military command to protect its oil interests and monitor the actions of militant groups.  Ã‚   However, diplomacy is an effective tool if preferences and policy beliefs are formulated around certain goals. This is what the next chapter is going to achieve, investigating the policy beliefs of the US and China and the way it contributes to effective oil diplomatic measures.   US-Sino Oil Diplomacy in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Strategic-Choice Analysis During the twentieth century, US and Chinas preference thinking regarding Africa was greatly influenced by ideological thinking. The contest between establishing democracy or communism in Africa was evident of US-Chinese intervention on the African continent. The US followed liberalization policies to free oppressing regimes from authoritarian, communist rule, while China viewed Africa as an open domain to introduce communism. A result of these opposing preferences by the US and China was that African countries were introduced to different ideological doctrines, which laid the foundation for African countries to establish their own state goals. Hostility of certain petroleum producing states toward cooperation with either the US or China, favoring one state over the other because of ideological and economical preferences, domestic conflict in Nigeria, violations of human rights in Sudan, the war on terror in conjunction with Muslim extremism and the general poor living and health con ditions in SSA, are factors that limit the American and Chinese governments to implement successful strategies. On the other hand, the US and China can certainly benefit from the individual preferences of state leaders and actors in the oil industry. For example, the goals of multinational oil corporations and the individual beliefs of business leaders contribute to the formulation of a national grand strategy for SSA.   In analyzing the strategic interest of the US in the SSA oil setting, the ideological preference of the US to promote democracy and good governance in African countries is a condition when strategies based on democratic principles are to be devised. â€Å"Oil is where you find it. Oil companies cannot always invest in democratically governed countries. It would be ideal if it could be guaranteed that the head of an African country where a US oil company invested was, in fact, an advocate of democracy and always respected human rights. Unfortunately, that is not a realistic expectation in todays Africa or in most other oil producing regions of the world. It is important to urge and cajole and to nudge the leaders of the oil producing countries towards establishing inclusive democracies and good governance† (Wihbey, Schutz, 2002: 4). This is the task of US diplomacy. In Sudan, the US government is supporting the initiatives of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative ( EITI) (The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, 2007). Countries that underwrite the initiatives and programs of the EITI have preferences toward establishing good governance principles in countries that depend on the extraction of natural resources, and to eradicate the exploitation of these resources. Initiatives that seek to promote good governance principles can only be successful if the supporting countries maintain these same good government principles at home. The SSA oil strategic setting allows for many actors, whether they are governmental institutions, non-governmental institutions, non-state actors or individuals, such as the residents of the Niger delta and Southern Sudan and the multitude of multinational oil corporations (MNCs), to formulate their own goals and pursue unique strategies. However, environmental constrains, such as transportation difficulties and inaccessibility of areas in the Niger Delta, further accentuates the problem actors experience to reach solutions on common grounds. Then there are also religious divisions between Muslims and Christians, ethnic conflicts between the different tribes living in the Niger Delta, the self-interested or ambitious goals of MNCs in the central government. These factors are all having an immoralizing effect on the negotiation process. Rebel groups operating from the Niger Delta, some of which pursue their own agendas and others, which are in unison with the goals of religious and ethnic groups, are at the moment taking the main stage in setting preferences for Niger Delta peace talks. The movement for the emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND)can be cited as a group that has extremely hostile feelings toward the presence of foreign and in particular western oil companies (The movement for the emancipation of the Nige r Delta, 2011). In a January 2006, MEND warned the oil industry: It must be clear that the Nigerian government cannot protect your workers or assets. Leave our land while you can or die in it. Our aim is to totally destroy the capacity of the Nigerian government to export oil† (Hanson, 2007: 2). One can assume from this statement, that MEND has a preference for the protection of their land from foreign invasion. They voice strong, emotional concern over foreign oil workers occupying their land and will take extreme measures expelling these oil workers from their land. Whether, they really are interested in finding solutions to the ongoing delta conflict is an open question. Their findings are that anti-government groups, supporting the goals of Muslim extremists and anti-western lobbyists are greatly responsible for the chaos and anarchy characterizing the situation in the delta. Accusations that western oil companies are destroying the natural habitat of certain fish populations and are responsible for the ethnic conflict are treated with contempt by oil companies, such as Shell and ExconMobil, (Howden, 2006) both which invested heavily in the Nigerian oil industry. Oil operations of these companies are conducted in harmony with the natural environment, and that one of their missions is to protect the Niger Delta from over-exploitation and unnecessary pollution. It is all a question of respecting the rights of citizens living in the area and caring about the natural environment, which is an aspect that is neglected by foreign oil companies operating in the Delta. In making a final analysis regarding the preferences of the actors in the Nigerian conflic t, it is necessary that common ground has to be found between the actors. An environment where actors pursue harmonious interests will be beneficial to all. As long as the local residents view foreign oil workers as intruders on their land, pursuing ambitious, and self-interested goals and not returning revenue into local community development programs, the chances that a final solution to the conflict be reached, are small. If one or both of these powers can accept the role of mediator, laying down guidelines for further negotiations, the negotiation process will enjoy a substantial boost. This mediating role will not only help the conflicting parties, but will in effect put the concept of energy security on the negotiating table. On the other hand, for parties to commence a mediating role, they should have an unbiased attitude toward the conflicting parties. Both these countries have strong and clear intentions to use oil diplomacy to their own benefit and manipulate the results in the SSA oil strategic setting. In SSA, AFRICOM is set out to achieve military dominance on the African continent and establish military strategic partnerships with petroleum producing countries. Nigeria, Sao Tome and Principe and Angola along the west coast of Africa are the main hotspots for US and Chinese oil interests. Nigeria is the biggest exporter of oil in the region, and in the last five years had allocated valuable oil drilling licenses to US and Chinese oil companies. Nigeria already supplies the oil needs of these two giants, especially to the US. Sao Tome and Principe and Nigeria (Sao Tome, Nigeria sign oil deal with US-led consortium, 2005) signed a milestone contract to give a consortium led by the US based oil company, ChevronTexaco, rights to drill in the two countries shared Gulf of Guinea oil exploration zone. China has secured four oil-drilling licenses from Nigeria in the last three years. In exchange, China will invest US$4bn in oil and infrastructure projects in Nigeria (BBC News, 2006). Nigeria, Africas top oil exporter, has long been viewed by China as a partner. From the recent contracts allocated by the governments of Nigeria and Sao Tome and Principe to US and Chinese based oil companies, it becomes clear that US-Sino oil diplomacy in SSA focus on establishing long-lasting relationships (BBC News, 2006). The giant Chinese state-owned China National Offshore Oil Corporation, CNOOC, has reached a deal to buy a 45 percent stake in a Nigerian oil field for more than US$2 billion. The purchase, if approved by both governments, would be Chinas first major venture into oil-rich Nigeria. Analysts say the Nigerian bid will not be easy for CNOOC, which has no experience in dealing with Nigeria, a country rated as a difficult place to do business. The international anti-corruption group Transparency International ranks the country as the sixth most corrupt nation in the world. The American oil company Chevron did not bid on this block, and that would imply they did not believe the values were there. So this is certainly a hurdle which CNOOC will have to overcome. Chinese and Nigerian governments will sign two important agreements: one on economic and technology cooperation and a memorandum of understanding on developing a strategic partnership. China is offering assistance in the form of building new tanker terminals, refineries and possible pipelines to export the oil from remote regions to the coast for easy loading (Ramirez, 2006). China is streamlining the oil infrastructure in SSA, according to their specific needs. This is an infrastructure that on the one hand satisfies their oil demands, but on the other hand leaves the host country no choice but to become dependent on the Chinese oil expertise.The result is that petroleum producing countries in the long run will be more dependent on Chinese investments to sustain their economies, rather than China being dependent on their oil imports. This interaction clearly indicates that Chinas preferences are shaped on establishing some sort of economic superiority over their oil strategic partners and forcing petroleum producing states to be dependent on Chinese intervention. If China has more control over the oil affairs of host countries, it will give them a stronger bargaining base and increase their strategic advantage. The longterm goal of countries that seek to control the economies of its trading partners is to transform economic gains into security gains, so that in the long run, economics and security are inseparable (Snidal, 1993: 73). When China can control the economies of petroleum producing states, it will have strong incentives to move one step further and create military strategic partnerships. The supply of military equipment, providing of nuclear technology, and perhaps positioning of Chinese troops in petroleum producing states, as overseers of its oil operations, cannot be excluded from its African engagement strategy. By successfully negotiating with petroleum producing states and gaining diplomatic prestige, the other state will immediately be in a less favorable situation. In doing so, the preferences will have a stronger strategic value and gives stronger bargaining power. Strategic values or interests are valued not for themselves, but for their contribution to the protection or promotion of other interests in the future. They are â€Å"interests defined in terms of power†, to recall Morgenthaus memorable phrase (Snyder, 1997: 23). The motivation for the US and China is to try and establish alignments with petroleum producing states. In this way, they their strategic values will be more clearly defined and they can implement strategies to control certain oil fields, offshore oil rigs, pipelines and sea passages. The indication is that the sea around the west coast of Africa, stretching from Nigeria in the north to Angola in the south, is expected to raise problems concerning the transpo rtation of future oil supplies. Because the US and China both have to use these sealanes to transport crude oil and gas, it might become a point of conflict. Determining Preferences Preference determination is typically specified in one of three ways: by assumption, by observation and by deduction (Frieden, 1999, p. 53). The objective with this section is to explore these ways and determine their analytical value in the context of the actors preferences in the SSA oil strategic setting, with the main emphasis being on the US and China. Because the US and China both have energy security interests, they have formulated energy security policies at the national level, and these policies are based on assumptions of realism or liberalism. Determining the preferences of the US and China by deducing preferences from these assumptions will offer one of the most analytically satisfying routes to see what specific preferences they hold in the SSA oil strategic setting. It is easiest to assume preferences. In the principal application in international relations to the preferences of nation-states, the simplest assumption might be that states attempt to maximize national wel fare, or assume that states maximize national resources (Frieden, 1999: 53). A comparison between the preferences of economics and the preferences of international politics shows that there are distinctions with regards to the actors involved and the goals they pursue. In economics, there is limited variation in the cast of characters, particularly firms and individuals. Firms prefer profit maximization and individuals prefer wealth maximization (Niou, Ordeshook. Rose, 1999: 54). However, international politics involves individuals, firms, groups, nation-states, international organizations and transnational actors. The preferences of ChevronTexaco and Chinas Petroleum and Chemical Corporation (Sinopec), may in general terms be homogenous, they are engaged in every aspect of the oil and natural gas industry in the SSA oil industry, including exploration and production, refining, marketing and transportation, chemicals, manufacturing and sales (The leadership functions of Chevron Texaco , 2007). However, the reality is that American and Chinese oil companies operating in SSA are in effect not only serving the interests of the oil industry and acting as channels for the procurement of oil imports for their local economies, but they also serve as useful instruments in the hands of politicians to control and manipulate the oil industries of the agent states. Expansion of US and Chinese oil operations in SSA since the start of the twenty first century are providing them with more power on the continent. The direct result of gaining more power in the oil industry is that the petroleum producing states are getting entangled in a web of either American or Chinese influence. This influence is leading to a state of dependency of petroleum producing states on US and Chinese involvement in their oil industries. In terms of economic considerations, the US and China prefer different outcomes in their oil diplomacy with petroleum producing states. The US regards the pursuing of economical interests a